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Topic: Animal locomotion

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	Terrestrial locomotion in animals - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		Movement on appendages is the most common form of terrestrial locomotion, it is the basic form of locomotion of two major groups with many terrestrial members, the vertebrates and the arthropods.
		Some animals such as horses are unguligrade, walking on the tips of their toes, this even further increases their stride length and thus their speed.
		Some limbless animals, such as a leeches, have suction cups on either end of their body, which allows them to move by anchoring the rear end and then moving forward the front end, which is then anchored and then the back end is pulled in, and so on.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Terrestrial_locomotion_in_animals (2423 words)

	Sample Chapter for Alexander, R.M.: Principles of Animal Locomotion.
		The structures of animals and some of their patterns of movement (the ones that are inherited) have evolved.
		The fitness of an animal's complement of genes (its genotype) is the probability of the same group of genes being transmitted to subsequent generations.
		If we were to try to express the relationship between the locomotion of animals and their fitness in mathematical terms, we would have to conclude that fitness is a function of speed, acceleration, maneuverability, endurance, energy economy, and a great many other properties.
	www.pupress.princeton.edu /chapters/s7435.html (3941 words)

	Rainforest Canopy—Animal Locomotion
		Because significant gaps exist between the branches of the canopy, animals of this zone must be able to negotiate these discontinuities by some means.
		Perhaps the strangest gliding animal is the paradise tree snake from southern Thailand, Malaysia, Borneo, Philippines, and Sulawesi.
		Brachiation is the form of arboreal locomotion characteristic of certain primates—especially the gibbon—where movement is accomplished by swinging by the arms from one branch to another.
	rainforests.mongabay.com /0408.htm (1353 words)

	Animal locomotion - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-05)
		In biology and physics, animal locomotion is the study of how animals move, and is part of biophysics.
		animal locomotion on steep, vertical, and overhanging surfaces (climbing on trees or on rockfaces - for example, lemurs in trees, mountain goats on a cliff face, or flies or geckos on the ceiling)
		The distinction between the second and third topics is that in the third, the animal does not need to expend energy to defeat gravity; in or on the water, buoyancy counteracts the animal's weight.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Animal_locomotion (228 words)

	LEARN FROM NATURE'S SWIMMERS
		Recent work in comparative animal biomechanics, however, has shown that in Nature, thrust generation by appendages of aquatic animals may be something substantially different from either lift or drag-based mechanisms (Dickinson, 1996).
		As in animal locomotion, the movement of thrust-generating limbs in human swimmers is inherently unsteady: phases of acceleration exist in the stroke.
		It is now recognized from comprehensive studies of animal locomotion (e.g., Cheng and DeMont, 1996; Cheng et al., 1996; Vogel, 1997) that new concepts associated with unsteady fluid dynamics are required to fully understand animal movement (Lauder and Long, 1996).
	www.sportsci.org /jour/9901/med.html (1386 words)

	Origin of Dinosaurs and Mammals - Erickson
		But the astronauts discovered that by modifying their locomotive behavior, and shifting to a skipping or hopping gait, they could move about quickly with relatively little effort or exertion.
		Nevertheless, a vertical component is required to elevate the animal high enough off the ground to enable it to move its legs forward during the suspended phase.
		This suggests that when shifting from a walk to a higher gait, animals may bypass the suspended gaits (running, trotting and galloping), which employ high stride rates, and go directly to aerial gaits (hopping, bounding or pronking) for which a high stride rate is not necessary.
	microlnx.com /dinosaurs/Locomotion.html (2213 words)

	Unified Physics Theory Explains Animals' Running, Flying And Swimming (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-05)
		They said their findings have important implications for understanding factors that guide evolution by suggesting that many important functional characteristics of animal shape and locomotion are predictable from physics.
		The researchers, funded by the National Science Foundation, report that the constructal law predicts universal relationships between animals’ body mass and speed, as well as the frequency and force of the strides, beats or undulations that propel their bodies forward.
		Simple equations based on this idea closely predicted the actual velocities of animals running over a variety of terrains and the observed wingbeat frequencies of flying birds, bats and insects, the current study reveals.
	www.dukenews.duke.edu /2005/12/locomotiontheory.html (1393 words)

	Insect Locomotion
		One of the underlying concepts that have been found for all animal locomotion is that of the central pattern generator.
		The CPG is the set of interconnected neurons that are responsible for generating the rhythmic motor patterns that animals use in locomotion.
		CPG's have been proven to exist for animals, and there has been a good deal of research on their properties and even on how they are used by cockroaches to generate their tripod gates.
	www.mindcreators.com /InsectLocomotion.htm (1317 words)

	Wetware: Robosnail and mimcking of animal locomotion
		This kind of research obviously helps biologists understand animals' locomotion and is probably very interesting from the microfluid perspective (I wouldn't know), but making use of animal locomotion methods in robots and vehicles definetly opens a range of new possibilities.
		More examples of mimicking of animal locomotion can be found at MIT's Leg lab of which I've been a fan for a long time.
		When for example an animal runs, the gait is not simply set to a certain rythm, but much rather to be able to instantly respond to any hole, bump or hurdle it may encounter (otherwise you'd twist your ancle and/or stumble every time you stepped on a stone in the path).
	wetware.hjalli.com /000010.html (389 words)

	Animal locomotion
		The ability of animals, from an insect to a horse, man or dinosaur, to run fast is defined by physics and mechanics.
		This 'spring legged' gait is, however, inherently unstable and understanding how animals remain stable during motion is of interest both for its own sake and for the design of animal-inspired robots.
		This is a particular challenge for large animals with long limbs where muscles contract slowly and have a relatively low power output.
	www.royalsoc.ac.uk /exhibit.asp?id=3587 (613 words)

	Poly-PEDAL
		The PolyPEDAL (Performance, Energetics, and Dynamics of Animal Locomotion) laboratory of Robert Full, physiologist and Chancellor's Professor at the University of California at Berkeley, performs internationally recognized research programs in comparative physiology and biomechanics that examine the general principles of animal and insect locomotion (see "Studying animal locomotion").
		To examine the effects of variation in body form on the mechanics of animal locomotion, the PolyPEDAL laboratory intensely studies biomechanics, such as in their experiments with cockroaches (see "Pendulums and pogo sticks").
		For instance, the laboratory scientists have discovered that the mechanical energy that a human, a crab, a cockroach, a dog, or a horse generate to move 1 m is 1 J relative to body mass; this energy value is the same despite the fact that humans differ radically from other creatures.
	polypedal.berkeley.edu /twiki/bin/view/PolyPEDAL/MediaInsectLocomotion (1945 words)

	AnimalPhylogeny1
		It is based on two premises: 1) that animals must go through the same stages in their embryological development as their ancestors went through in their embryological development.
		Extensive biomineralization by animals began at the beginning of the Cambrian era (-540 Myr) and by -520 Myr (the Burgess shale) already show a great diversity of animal types that are unlikely to be the most primitive forms.
		However, it could also mean that sessile animals evolved protective coverings that were preserved as fossils before such coverings were evolved by more active, mobile, worm-like animals.
	www.its.caltech.edu /~brokawc/Bi11/AnimalPhylogeny1.html (1656 words)

	Animal Locomotion (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-05)
		Source of most sequential photos was Muybridge, Animals in Motion, originally published around the turn of the century and now available from Dover.
		Note that most of the photos are over 100 years old, and while the photographic technique was exceptional for its time, some of the faster animals (e.g., the whippet) were slightly blurred.
		It is still possible to see the footfall sequences and how they relate to periods of suspension.
	bowlingsite.mcf.com /Movement/locoindex.html (119 words)

	LiveScience.com - Researchers Find Every Body is Doing the Locomotion
		All animals, whether they run, fly, or swim, follow the newly proposed “constructal theory”, the idea that the basic characteristics of locomotion for each animal—how rapidly and forcefully they step, flap, or paddle themselves forward—is related to their mass.
		Locomotion on the ground and in the air is governed largely by gravity, but fish are neutrally buoyant—or nearly so—in water.
		This means that their tendency to float counteracts the force of gravity and they neither sink or rise, and scientists had considered fish to move as though unaffected by gravity.
	www.livescience.com /animalworld/051230_animal_locomotion.html (731 words)

	Amazon.ca: Principles of Animal Locomotion: Books: R. Alexander (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-05)
		Robert Dudley, University of California, Berkeley : One of the major gaps in the literature of biomechanics is a general textbook on animal locomotion, and it is difficult to imagine anyone better suited to write one than Alexander.
		There is no other contemporary book on animal locomotion that is as broad in scope, and I expect that it will become a classic in the field.
		In this case, the various modes of how animals move are explained using words, pictures, and equations.
	www.amazon.ca /Principles-Animal-Locomotion-R-Alexander/dp/0691086788 (583 words)

	Oxford University Press: Animal Locomotion: Andrew A. Biewener (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-05)
		Common themes are observed for the ways in which animals successfully contend with the properties of a given physical environment across diversity of life forms and varying locomotor modes.
		Since an animal's size is equally critical to its functional design, the effects of scale on locomotor energetics and mechanics are also discussed.
		He then describes the basic mechanisms that animals have evolved to move over land, in and on the surface of the water, and in the air.
	www.oup.com /us/catalog/general/subject/LifeSciences/VertebrateZoology/?view=usa&ci=019850022X (516 words)

	05.10.00 - Animal locomotion as high science
		What has emerged from the comparative biomechanics group and from their associates around the world are a set of principles that apply to animal locomotion of all kinds, whether it's running, swimming, flying or wriggling.
		Animals throw force out in all directions, seemingly out of control and not optimized for moving in one direction.
		He has shown that these animals run by bouncing along like pogo sticks with the same patterns seen in humans.
	www.berkeley.edu /news/berkeleyan/2000/05/10/loco.html (842 words)

	Oricom Technologies 4-Legged Musings
		Animals overall have an analogous leg structure, but vastly different leg attachment and locomotion techniques.
		Animal gaits have been studied throughout history, at least as far back as Aristotle.
		In order that a walking or running animal does not injure its body with each dynamic maneuver, the joints and legs must have some mechanisms for absorbing shocks built in.
	www.oricomtech.com /projects/legs.htm (953 words)

	Terrestrial intermittent exercise: Common issues for human athletics and comparative animal locomotion American ...
		The earliest studies of intermittent exercise physiology noted that moving intermittently (ie., alternating brief movements with brief pauses) could transform a heavy workload into a submaximal one that can be tolerated and sustained.
		While it is evident that altering locomotor behavior (ie., moving intermittently) can alter the capacity of an animal to perform work, mathematical models of intermittent exercise could predict strategies (ie., exercise intensity, exercise duration, and pause duration) that will increase performance limits for intermittent activity.
		More interestingly, the total distance traveled before exhaustion can be increased by 2- to 5-fold compared to the distance traveled by moving continuously at the same average speed, even when the average speed is less than the MAS (Weinstein and Full, 1992, 1998, 1999, 2000).
	www.findarticles.com /p/articles/mi_qa3746/is_200104/ai_n8930809 (821 words)

	Amazon.de: Principles of Animal Locomotion: English Books: R. McNeill Alexander (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-05)
		Excluding only the tiny creatures that use cilia, it covers all animals that power their movements with muscle - from roundworms to whales, clams to elephants, and gnats to albatrosses.
		The introduction sets out the general rules governing all modes of animal locomotion and considers the performance criteria - such as speed, endurance, and economy - that have shaped their selection.
		Focusing on general principles but extensively discussing a wide variety of individual cases, this is a superb synthesis of current knowledge about animal locomotion.
	www.amazon.de /Principles-Animal-Locomotion-McNeill-Alexander/dp/0691086788 (420 words)

	A unified theory of animal locomotion
		Now, physicists from Duke University have applied the so-called 'constructal theory' to explain how running, flying and swimming modes of locomotion are similar even if they're apparently unrelated.
		And this single unifying physics theory explains how fast animals get from one place to another and how rapidly and forcefully they step, flap or paddle in relation to their mass." In other words, these scientists argue that the characteristics of animal shape and locomotion are predictable from physics.
		The useful (liberated) energy is known as exergy in thermodynamics and as energy consumption in biology.
	www.primidi.com /2006/01/02.html (534 words)

	IMA Workshop: Animal Locomotion and Robotics, June 1-5, 1998
		Legged animals typically employ multiple gaits, i.e., phase-locked patterns of limb movements, for terrestrial locomotion.
		The control of animal locomotion involves a central pattern generator (CPG), which is an intraspinal network of neurons capable of producing rhythmic output.
		Machines capable of legged locomotion are an attractive option, because they can be used to explore rough and uneven terrain, which is often inaccessible to wheeled vehicles.
	www.ima.umn.edu /dynsys/spring/dynsys10.html (342 words)

	reflection: Wave patterns in animal locomotion
		As a kid I was fascinated that dolphins had the same sort of wave, but up and down instead of side to side.
		I even had a personal kind of classification of the good guys vs bad guys in the animal kingdom based on which way their wave went.
		This notion is suggested by the many examples spread broadly throughout the animal kingdom.
	dobbse.net /reflection/2004/02/waves.html (629 words)

	Running in the surf: hydrodynamics of the shore crab Grapsus tenuicrustatus -- Martinez 204 (17): 3097 -- Journal of ...
		an animal have the capacity to constrain the postures, gaits
		The crab in the diagram is locomoting with its left side leading and is moving upstream against an ambient water current.
		Crab is locomoting at +4° angle of attack.
	jeb.biologists.org /cgi/content/full/204/17/3097 (8630 words)

	Animal Trapping ( - ) Artwork Images, Exhibitions, Reviews
		Eadweard Muybridge, Animal Locomotion, plate 153 from the book Animal Locomotion.
		An Electro-Photographic Investigation of Consecutive Phases of Animal Movements.
		Iyola, Animal group on the ice, 20th century
	www.wwar.com /masters/t/trapping-animal.html (358 words)

	Rhizome.org: Animal Locomotion
		"Animal Locomotion" is concerned with identity in a more essentialist manner—not with biography but with what transcends particular biographical facts, the essential ground on which the particular self is built.
		I guess this is an extension of and move beyond "Sea-Changes," where the concern is with a shared identity.
		Animal Locomotion builds on the tensions and paradoxes inherent in this polarity.
	rhizome.org /object.rhiz?1858 (327 words)

	Index to Comic Art Collection: "Animal Fables" to "Animaniacs"
		Call no.: PN6710.W6 1976 ----------------------------------------------------- Animal Locomotion : The Muybridge Work at the University of Pennsylvania, the Method and the Result.
		Hybrides : Animal on est mal / scénario et dessin, Séraphine ; d'après une idée de Thierry Umbreit ; collaboration scénaristique, Benoît Peeters ; mise en couleurs, Chantal Devoghel.
		Raggedy Animals / by Sherman Ripley ; with illustrations by Harrison Cady.
	www.lib.msu.edu /comics/rri/arri/animal_f.htm (6307 words)

	EADWEARD MUYBRIDGE (Page 6) (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-05)
		He returned to America and found sponsors for his work at the University of Pennsylvania who granted him facilities for further investigations and advanced him $5,000 for the project.
		This time Muybridge added the device of a motor clock which permitted three different views of the same scene to be taken at the same time.
		The results were published in a monumental work of 781 folio sized plates entitled "Animal Locomotion" (1887).
	www.kingston.ac.uk /Muybridge/muytext6.htm (258 words)

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