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Topic: Atomic test

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	CSS2.1 Test Case Authoring Guidelines
		Tests should be very short (a paragraph or so) and certainly not require scrolling on even the most modest of screens, unless the test is specifically for scrolling behaviour.
		In general, the language "the test has passed" is used when it is clear from context that a particular user agent is being tested, and the term "this-or-that-user-agent has passed the test" is used when multiple user agents are being compared.
		Tests that do not use red or green to indicate success or failure should use blue to indicate that the tester should read the text carefully to determine the pass conditions.
	www.w3.org /Style/CSS/Test/guidelines.html (2714 words)

	The First Atomic Bomb Blast, 1945
		The test was the culmination of three years' planning and development within the super secret Manhattan Project headed by General Leslie R. Groves.
		Even before the bomb was tested, a second bomb was secretly dispatched to the Pacific for an attack on the Japanese city of Hiroshima.
		Finally, the rains that had delayed the test for almost two weeks subsided and in the darkness of that July morning history was made.
	www.eyewitnesstohistory.com /atomictest.htm (1086 words)

	Atomic Bomb Test, 1953 - Sound Clip - MSN Encarta
		Atomic Bomb Test, 1953 - Sound Clip - MSN Encarta
		The United States carried out atmospheric (above-ground) testing of nuclear weapons at the Nevada Test Site, in southern Nevada, between 1951 and 1962.
		In this excerpt from a broadcast, a news reporter describes a detonation of an atomic bomb that was conducted in March 1953.
	encarta.msn.com /media_461545066/Atomic_Bomb_Test_1953.html (69 words)

	American Experience \| Las Vegas: An Unconventional History \| The Atomic Age \| PBS
		As part of the Civil Defense effort that year, he and all of his classmates were given a green booklet titled "Atomic Tests in Nevada." The booklet describes the importance of the atomic tests at the Nevada Proving Grounds and emphasizes the safety precautions that were taken to protect those both on- and off-site.
		Most tests have been used additionally for basic research, such as biological studies, which could be conducted only in the presence of a full scale nuclear detonation.
		Almost all of the claims made as a result of tests have been for asserted damage made as a result of tests and a large majority of these were from the Las Vegas area as a result of the first two test series.
	www.pbs.org /wgbh/amex/lasvegas/sfeature/sf_atomic_04.html (2327 words)

	.:SonicBomb:. - Content (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-16)
		Tests were conducted in groups known as "operations" or "test series" which involved large numbers of personnel and often had a clear set of objectives that needed achieving.
		As with many atomic nations, the exact size and composition of its nuclear forces and testing program are very difficult to determine due to strict secrecy.
		It is believed that with the conclusion of Chinese testing in 1996, they had completed development of a range of warheads similar to the state of the art weapons developed by the other major nuclear powers.
	www.sonicbomb.com /modules.php?name=Content&pa=showpage&pid=39 (969 words)

	Atomic Age
		America Faces the Atomic Age: 1946 - The A-bomb and atomic testing were entirely new phenomena in history and there was a variety of opinion about the tests and the weapon.
		The Atomic Age: A Brief Overview - An overview of the Manhattan Project, the use of the bomb, the development of the Cold War and the physics of nuclear weapons.
		The Atomic Bomb - Describes the process of fission as it relates to the bomb, covers the effects on people and buildings, has a timeline of events in the development of the bomb, and photos of Hiroshima and Nagasaki as well as other bomb effects.
	www.supercrawler.com /Society/History/By_Time_Period/Twentieth_Century/Atomic_Age (4550 words)

	IEER commentary: Soviet atomic test, 50th anniversary
		The fallout created by the subsequent frenzy of atmospheric testing is projected to cause an estimated 100,000 to half-a-million cancer fatalities by the end of the next century.
		Nuclear tests, and the development of nuclear weapons that they have enabled, have produced a chain reaction of pollution and proliferation, resulting in new weapons in existing nuclear states as well as new nuclear powers.
		The institutionalized inequality between the five countries that tested before the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty was signed (in 1968) and the rest of the world is often derisively referred to as "nuclear apartheid" in India.
	www.ieer.org /op-eds/sovitest.html (651 words)

	Summer 2000 Newsletter – Project Faultless: Central Nevada's Near Miss as an Atomic Proving Ground
		After nuclear testing was moved underground, a series of problems at NTS drew the eyes of nuclear planners to a section of land in Nye County's Hot Creek Valley, approximately midway between Eureka and Tonopah, where plans were quietly laid to develop a supplemental nuclear proving ground.
		As a result, the first test scheduled there, and, as it happened, the only test to take place there, was categorized as a calibration test (as opposed to a weapons effect test, where the effects of the bomb on animals, homes, military equipment and bomb shelters were measured).
		The AEC faced a larger than usual challenge in trying to convince residents of Central Nevada that the test would be beneficial to their communities, as the area slated for the calibration study lay in the fallout path of over half of the atmospheric tests of the 1950s.
	www.yuccamountain.org /faultless.html (2383 words)

	British Atomic Testing In Australia
		Sir William stated at a news conference in Sydney that the tests would not involve big explosions, but that was not to state that small weapons would not have a tactical role to play during the times of war.
		Nuclear devices that are detonated above ground, as in the Maralinga tests, form a cloud that rises to between 7500 metres and 20,000 metres, depending on the size of the bomb and the weather.
		For all atomic tests in Australia, the Safety Committee concluded in 1959 that the hazard to humans from the consequent radioactive fallout was of no consequence.
	www.allshookup.org /quakes/atomic.htm (1853 words)

	Atomic Test Effects in the Nevada Test Site Region (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-16)
		The forces released by test detonations in Nevada are very small compared to the tremendous forces released by the large fission and hydrogen weapons tested in the Pacific.
		The path of fall-out is narrow at the test site and in the nearby region, widens to hundreds of miles as it moves on, and tends eventually to be distributed uniformly over the earth's surface.
		As you know, the Test Organization uses various procedures to record promptly the actual fall-out in the region near the test site so that any needed action can be taken to reduce exposure and so that you may be told the level of exposure you may have experienced if you were under the cloud's path.
	www.fourmilab.ch /etexts/www/atomic_tests_nevada (5506 words)

	"Nuclear fallout"
		The other tests, he says, are needed to help develop computer simulations and other alternatives to testing before France signs onto the Comprehensive Test Ban, which is expected to take effect in mid-1996.
		Such testing was discontinued by the United States in 1963 and by France in 1974.
		The French, however, say that while one test is for a new (though already designed) submarine missile, the main reason they need these tests is to maintain the safety and reliability of the weapons in their stockpile.
	sln.fi.edu /inquirer/fallout.html (1550 words)

	Nebraskans Witness an Atomic Blast, Operation Cue
		Operation Cue was not the first attempt to test the effects an atomic explosion would have on buildings and houses (constructed of different materials) and cars.
		Coverage of the test was carried live, nationwide by radio and TV stations, as well as extended coverage in newspapers.
		The goal of the test was to see how well houses, shelters, power lines, a radio tower, metal buildings, food, clothing, mannequins -- standing in for people -- and actual people would survive at various distances away from a nuclear blast.
	www.nebraskastudies.org /0900/stories/0901_0131.html (1128 words)

	First Atomic Bomb Test - Picture - MSN Encarta
		First Atomic Bomb Test - Picture - MSN Encarta
		The mushroom-shaped cloud of the first atomic bomb explosion spreads over the Trinity test site near Alamagordo, New Mexico, on July 16, 1945.
		The cloud rose to an altitude of 12,000 m (40,000 ft).
	encarta.msn.com /media_701611543/First_Atomic_Bomb_Test.html (58 words)

	Key Issues: Nuclear Weapons: Issues: Testing: Preliminary Report Following Second Atomic Test (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-16)
		Measurements of radiation intensity and a study of animals exposed in ships show that the initial flash of principal lethal radiations, which are gamma-rays and neutrons, would have killed almost all personnel normally stationed aboard the ships centered around the air burst and many others at greater distances.
		The other three members inspected the target array from a small boat the day before the test and observed the bomb's explosion from the deck of the USS HAVEN, 11 miles at sea to the east of the burst.
		It is impossible to evaluate an atomic burst in terms of conventional explosives.
	www.nuclearfiles.org /menu/key-issues/nuclear-weapons/issues/testing/preliminary-report-second-test_1946-08-02.htm (1642 words)

	Atomic Bomb Collection
		Almost unknown to the public, much of the information on theses tests has been kept secret for over 35 years until recently, when newly declassified test footage and secret government documents obtained from both countries reveals the inside story of the high altitude testing program of the nuclear superpowers.
		Atomic Journeys explores the secret history of the over 900 Atomic and Hydrogen bomb tests detonated throughout the United States in previously unknown locations as diverse as Mississippi, Colorado, New Mexico and Alaska.
		Through the use of spectacular, never-before-seen nuclear test footage, "Atomic Journeys" travels to eight of the former testing sites throughout the United States and examines the physical changes to the environment that occurred because of these tests, the history behind each test and what the test sites are like today.
	www.atomicarchive.com /Store/Products/AtomicBombCollection.shtml (292 words)

	CNN Cold War - The Atomic Age: From fission to fallout
		But the arrival of the Atomic Age, and the brutal evidence of just how effective this new weapon was, tainted the ensuing peace.
		Those weapons require an implosion-type atomic blast to create the heat and pressure needed to fuse the nuclei of two hydrogen isotopes, deuterium and tritium.
		For such a fusion reaction to succeed, the fission explosion of the atomic bomb must generate temperatures equal to -- or greater than -- those found at the sun's core.
	www.cnn.com /SPECIALS/cold.war/experience/the.bomb/history.science (785 words)

	Samore: N. Korean Atomic Test ‘A Purely Political Act’ - Council on Foreign Relations
		One theory is that the test was a partial failure and the device had been designed to have a full yield of between five [kilotons] and fifteen kilotons, which is what you would expect for a first generation nuclear device, and if it didn’t quite work properly then you would have a sub-kiloton yield.
		And that’s what the North Koreans are counting on: They are counting on the Chinese and the South Koreans to protect them from the kinds of sanctions that might actually jeopardize the survival of the regime.
		But in terms of where we go from here in the aftermath of the tests, we have no choice but to try to impose sanctions as strongly as possible and I think the resolution is very well constructed.
	www.cfr.org /publication/11746 (2534 words)

	Trinity
		This test was intended to prove the radical new implosion weapon design that had been developed at Los Alamos during the previous year.
		This design, embodied in the test device called Gadget, involved a new technology that could not be adequately evaluated without a full scale test.
		The test allowed the calibration of instruments to measure the blast wave, and gave some indication of how fission products might be distributed by the explosion.
	nuclearweaponarchive.org /Usa/Tests/Trinity.html (1009 words)

	Operation Crossroads: Bikini Atoll: Naval Art form the Atomic Bomb Test
		Operation Crossroads was an atmospheric nuclear weapon test series conducted in the summer of 1946 at Bikini Atoll in the Marshall Islands.
		In contrast to all later atmospheric nuclear tests, a large media contingent was present for the two Crossroads detonations.
		Although the old battleship survived both bombs, extensive contamination from test BAKER led to her destruction by gunfire and aerial torpedoes in an exercise off Hawaii on 31 July 1948.
	www.history.navy.mil /ac/bikini/bikini1.htm (626 words)

	NAAV Links
		The BNTVA is an organisation which deals with all nuclear test veterans and their families.
		The museum was established in 1969 as an intriguing place to learn the story of the Atomic Age, from early research of nuclear development through today's peaceful uses of nuclear technology.
		On July 16, 1945, at 5:29:45am, the first atomic explosion was detonated at Trinity Site in New Mexico, U.S.A. It came less than 50 years after the discovery of radioactivity in 1896 and brought many threads of physics, technology and politics to a dramatic culmination.
	www.naav.com /html/links.htm (1292 words)

	Trinity Atomic Bomb - Chapter 1
		One afternoon while scientists were busily setting up test instruments in the desert, the tail gunner of a low flying B-29 bomber spotted some grazing antelopes and opened up with his twin.50-caliber machine guns.
		The test was originally scheduled for 4 a.m., Monday July 16, but was postponed to 5:30 due to a severe thunderstorm that would have increased the amount of radioactive fallout, and have interfered with the test results.
		Due to the intense secrecy surrounding the test, no accurate information of what happened was released to the public until after the second atomic bomb had been dropped on Japan.
	www.worldwideschool.org /library/books/hst/northamerican/TrinitySite-I/chap1.html (2492 words)

	The Project Gutenberg Etext of Trinity [Atomic Test] Site - Larry Lavitt (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-16)
		Project leaders decided a test of the plutonium bomb was essential before it could be used as a weapon of war.
		To calibrate the instruments which would be measuring the atomic explosion and to practice a countdown, the Manhattan scientists ran a simulated blast on May 7.
		During the Trinity test the roof was bowed inward and some of the roofing was blown away.
	web.ncf.ca /lavitt/louisslotin/2trnt10.html (5579 words)

	Maralinga marks atomic test anniversary. 27/09/2006. ABC News Online
		The first British atomic bomb test was conducted at Maralinga in South Australia's outback 50 years ago today.
		Seven atomic tests were conducted there in 1956 and 1957 and minor trials continued into the early 1960s.
		Most of the former Maralinga test site is considered safe for unrestricted access although permanent residency is restricted to a small section.
	www.abc.net.au /news/newsitems/200609/s1749681.htm (263 words)

	NAAV Atomic Veteran
		The National Association of Atomic Veterans recognizes that civilians as well as military personnel were exposed to harmful nuclear material radiation, and that many of these personnel have since expired as a result of radiation induced illnesses.
		The mission of the National Association of Atomic Veterans is to assist these veterans in obtaining government recognition and Department of Veteran Affairs health care and financial assistance.
		During the tests various government agencies and departments were interested in learning about the various effects of atomic and nuclear weapons, as well as how these weapons affected the immediate performance of military personnel and equipment.
	www.naav.com (802 words)

	NPR : Trinity: Revisiting the Birth of the Bomb
		To test their new weapon, the scientists chose a desolate stretch of uninhabited, government-owned land in the New Mexico desert.
		Listen to Victor Weisskopf, a scientist on the Manhattan Project who witnessed the first atomic bomb test, recount the experience to NPR's Noah Adams.
		The National Atomic Museum chronicles the history and science of the nuclear age.
	www.npr.org /programs/re/archivesdate/2003/feb/trinity/index.html (1168 words)

	First Chinese atomic bomb test - history - central - British Council - LearnEnglish
		Although not mentioned in the Chinese communiqué, it was stated in the U.S.A. and confirmed by President Johnson that the site of the explosion was in the vicinity of Lop Nor, a lake in a remote and desolate region of the Central Asian province of Sinkiang.
		According to the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, the Chinese had detonated a fission device employing uranium-235 (suggesting an explosive power of 20,000 tons of T.N.T. or less), the A.E.C. describing it as a low-yield explosion "typical of an early nuclear test."
		This is a major achievement of the Chinese people in their struggle to increase their national defence capability and oppose the U.S. imperialist policy of nuclear flmail and nuclear threats.
	www.britishcouncil.org /learnenglish-central-history-first-chinese-atomic-bomb-test.htm (853 words)

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