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	THEORY OF RADIATION - LoveToKnow Article on THEORY OF RADIATION
		The foundation of this subject is the principle, arrived at independently by Balfour Stewart and Kirchhoff about the year 1858, that the constitution (~ 6) of the radiation which pervades an enclosure, surrounded by bodies in a steady thermal state, must be a function of the temperature of those bodies, and of nothing else.
		The final temperature being absolute zero, this should by Carnots principle be equal to the total initial energy of the gas that is in conneKion with temperature, constitutive energy of the molecules being excluded; when -y1 is less than 3/4 there is thus internal thermal energy in the molecules in addition to the translatory energy.
		It is maintained by Jeans that the reason why this principle is of avail only for very long wavelengths is that a steady state is never reached for the shorter ones, a doctrine which as he admits would entirely remove the foundations of the application of thermodynamic principles to this subject.
	www.1911encyclopedia.org /R/RA/RADIATION_THEORY_OF.htm (7134 words)

	Entropy - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		This definition, formulated in 1877 by Ludwig Boltzmann, is one of the basic concepts of statistical mechanics.
		In Boltzmann's definition, entropy is a measure of the number of possible microscopic states (or microstates) of a system in thermodynamic equilibrium, consistent with its macroscopic thermodynamic properties (or macrostate).
		This postulate, which is known as Boltzmann's principle, may be regarded as the foundation of statistical mechanics, which describes thermodynamic systems using the statistical behaviour of its constituents.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Entropy (3714 words)

	Was ist die Boltzmann-Gesellschaft? (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-05)
		Max Planck later packed this Boltzmann Principle into the formula: S=k log W. S represents the numerical value of the entropy, W probability, and k is a universal constant.
		Ludwig Boltzmann was born in Vienna to a civil servant with the Inland Revenue Office of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and his Salzburg wife in Vienna (3rd District - Erdberg).
		Ludwig Boltzmann also was one of the fathers of biophysics and bioenergetics.
	www.ludwigboltzmann.at /gesellschaft_e/wer_boltzmann.htm (579 words)

	Boltzmann: a disordered genius (April 1999) - Review - PhysicsWeb
		Although Boltzmann's first scientific paper was on electrodynamics, his second was devoted to the mechanical meaning of the second law of thermodynamics - a topic that Boltzmann would return to again and again throughout his life, and to which he eventually gave an exhaustive answer.
		Boltzmann wrote to his mother in Vienna in September 1872 saying that he had given a lecture on the theorem to the Physical Society in Berlin, but that hardly anyone was able to follow him - apart from Helmholtz, with whom an interesting discussion developed.
		Boltzmann developed his statistical interpretation of the second law of thermodynamics in his famous paper of 1877 on the second law and probability calculus.
	physicsweb.org /articles/review/12/4/1/1 (1343 words)

	Some perspective on the shape of all possible universes
		For science, the principle that systems move from an ordered to a disordered state is why the natural gases of the Earth are not a sustainable resource.
		Boltzmann developed the second law in the 1860's before most of what we now know of the evolving universe was discovered.
		The principle that Boltzmann developed, the idea that a larger measure of possibilities influences the direction and evolution of the universe, is unquestionably true.
	everythingforever.com /foreword.html (2631 words)

	Encyclopedia: Boltzmann constant
		Temperature is the physical property of a system which underlies the common notions of hot and cold; the material with the higher temperature is said to be hotter.
		Ludwig Boltzmann Ludwig Eduard Boltzmann (February 20, 1844 – September 5, 1906) was an Austrian physicist famous for the invention of statistical mechanics.
		Statistical mechanics is the application of statistics, which includes mathematical tools for dealing with large populations, to the field of mechanics, which is concerned with the motion of particles or objects when subjected to a force.
	www.nationmaster.com /encyclopedia/Boltzmann-constant (1168 words)

	Registration & Records - Course Catalog
		Introduction to the fundamental physical principles governing the structure and constitution of metallic and nonmetallic materials and the relationships among these principles and the mechanical, physical and chemical properties of engineering materials.
		Principles of step reaction and addition polymerizations; copolymerization; emulsion polymerization; ionic polymerization; characterization of polymers; molecular structure and properties.
		Development of principles and their practical application to measurement of images from microscopy (primarily materials) to describe three-dimensional structure of specimens viewed in transverse sections or projection.
	www2.acs.ncsu.edu /reg_records/crs_cat/MSE.html (2865 words)

	History and outlook of statistical physics :: Statistical Mechanics (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-05)
		This relation has been called Boltzmann's Principle by Albert Einstein (1879-1955) in 1905 since it can be used as the foundation of statistical mechanics.
		The appearance of so-called statistical fluctuations in small subsystems was predicted by Boltzmann and he recognized Brownian motion as such a phenomenon.
		He had realized that the pa pers of Maxwell and Boltzmann initiated a new discipline which could be applied to bodies of arbitrary complexity moving according to the laws of mechanics which were investigated statistically.
	statisticfunction.net /mech (1013 words)

	Boltzmann constant (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-05)
		In principle, the Boltzmann constant is a derived physical constant, as its value is determined by other physical constants.
		Given a thermodynamic system at an absolute temperature T, the Boltzmann constant defines an energy E = kT that is, roughly speaking, the typical amount of thermal energy carried by each microscopic particle in the system.
		For example, an atom in a classical ideal gas has a mean kinetic energy of 1.5 kT.
	www.encyclopedia-1.com /b/bo/boltzmann_constant.html (284 words)

	Universal Theory - Home (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-05)
		Assertion 2 The second assertion of the Holographic Principle is that the theory on the boundary of the region of space in question should contain at most one degree of freedom per Planck area.
		In the Boltzmann formulation the principle of least action leads to a space-time equilibrium state of least energy.
		In the holonomic brain theory, Pribram describes the principle of least action as leading to maximizing the amount of information (minimizing the entropy).Independently, (in unrelated work) Schneider and Kay (1994) have proposed a variation on the second law of thermodynamics, which may be applicable to Pribram's holonomic theory.
	www.universaltheory.org /holographic_principle.htm (3347 words)

	Everything you always wanted to know about Thermodynamic entropy
		Statistical definition of entropy: Boltzmann's Principle In 1877, Boltzmann realised that the entropy of a system may be related to the number of possible "microstates" (microscopic states) consistent with its thermodynamic properties.
		Consistency requires us to consider only those microstates for which (i) the positions of all the particles are located within the volume of the container, (ii) the kinetic energies of the atoms sum up to the total energy of the gas, and so forth.
		Boltzmann then postulated that S = k(lnΩ) where k is known as Boltzmann's constant and Ω is the number of microstates that are consistent with the given macroscopic state.
	www.relan.net /Chemistry/Entropy.html (2463 words)

	[No title]
		In principle, the Boltzmann constant could be a derived physical constant, as its value is determined by other physical constants and in the definition of unit of absolute
		In a system of natural units, the natural unit of temperature would be such a temperature that would normalize the Boltzmann constant to unity.
		absolute temperature T, the Boltzmann constant defines an energy E = kT that is the mean amount of kinetic energy carried by each microscopic particle in the system per degree of freedom of motion.
	en-cyclopedia.com /wiki/Boltzmann_constant (299 words)

	Energy Citations Database (ECD) - Energy and Energy-Related Bibliographic Citations (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-05)
		The usual form of Boltzmann`s principle assures that maximum entropy, or entropy reduction, occurs with maximum probability, implying a unimodal distribution.
		Boltzmann`s principle cannot be applied to nonunimodal distributions, like the arcsine law, because the entropy may be concave only over a limited portion of the interval.
		The method of subordination shows that the arcsine distribution corresponds to a process with a single degree of freedom, thereby confirming the invalidation of Boltzmann`s principle.
	www.osti.gov /energycitations/product.biblio.jsp?osti_id=471781 (179 words)

	Dictionary of Meaning www.mauspfeil.net
		In Planck's system of natural units, the Planck temperature natural unit temperature is such that the Boltzmann constant is one.
		The main reason Boltzmann's definition of the entropy is so important is that it shows us how this macroscopic property of a system emerges from the microscopic details of its constituents.
		It is Boltzmann's formalism (or the properties of gases), not ''k'' itself, that defines temperature.
	www.mauspfeil.net /Boltzmann_constant.html (1377 words)

	Boltzmann principle (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-05)
		In 1877, Boltzmann realised that the entropy of a system may be related to the number of possible "microstates" (microscopic states) consistent withits thermodynamic properties.
		where k is known as Boltzmann's constant andΩ is the number of microstates that are consistent with the given macroscopic state.
		This postulate, which is knownas Boltzmann's principle, may be regarded as the foundation of statistical mechanics, which describes thermodynamic systems using the statistical behaviour of itsconstituents.
	www.therfcc.org /RFCC/boltzmann-principle-112024.html (2376 words)

	Materials Engineering.Courses
		Principles techniques and applications of engineering reliability systems and quality control in the field of materials and processes.
		Solutions of Fick's Law; atomistic approach to diffusion, mechanisms of diffusion; generation of point defects; self-diffusion; diffusion of solutes; the influence of the pressure and pressure gradient; Kirkendall effect; diffusion in BCC metals; fast diffusion; influence of isotropic state; experimental methods of investigation of diffusion.
		Principles of crystallographic characterization of materials (ceramics and metallic alloys).
	www.bgu.ac.il /eng/Courses/MatE.Courses.html (2049 words)

	Citebase - Second Law of Thermodynamics and Macroscopic Observables within Boltzmann's principle, an attempt (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-05)
		Boltzmann's principleS=k*ln W is generalized to non-equilibrium Hamiltonian systems with possibly fractal distributions in phase space by the box-counting volume.
		A geometric foundation thermo-statistics is presented with the only axiomatic assumption of Boltzmann's principle S(E,N,V)=k\ln W. This relates the entropy to the geometric area e^{S(E,N,V)/k} of the manifold of constant energy in the finite-N-body phase space.
		Boltzmann's principle S(E,N,V)=k\ln W relates the entropy to the geometric area e^{S(E,N,V)} of the manifold of constant energy in the N-body phase space.
	citebase.eprints.org /cgi-bin/citations?id=oai%3AarXiv%2Eorg%3Acond%2Dmat%2F0011130 (896 words)

	A New Hierarchy System on the Basis of a Master Boltzmann Equation for Microscopic Density (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-05)
		It is shown that Boltzmann's equation written in terms of microscopic density (namely the unaveraged Boltzmann Function) has a wider range of validity as well as finer resolvability for fluctuations than the conventional Boltzmann equation governing Boltzmann's function.
		In fact the new Boltzmann equation for ideal gases has implications as a microscopically exact continuity equation like Klimontovich's equation for plasmas, and can be derived without invoking any statistical concepts, e.g., distribution functions, or molecular chaos.
		The Boltzmann equation in the older formalism is obtained by averaging this equation only under a restricted condition of the molecular chaos.
	www.ca-homes.com /science/tsuge-5.htm (293 words)

	Time [Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy] (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-05)
		Boltzmann didn't realize that the temporal asymmetry he got out of a system if just the asymmetry he put in.
		Einstein's principal equation in his general theory of relativity implies that the curvature of the geometry of spacetime is directly proportional to the density of mass in the spacetime.
		That is, one event could in principle have affected the other since light would have had time to travel from one to the other.
	www.phy.hr /~matko/zenon/time.html (19848 words)

	Einstein's Philosophy of Science
		The principle of univocalness should not be mistaken for a denial of the underdetermination thesis.
		Einstein is here alluding the famous entropic analogy whereby, in his 1905 photon hypothesis paper, he reasoned from the fact that fl body radiation in the Wien regime satisfied the Boltzmann principle to the conclusion that, in that regime, radiation behaved as if it consisted of mutually independent, corpuscle-like quanta of electromagnetic energy.
		The quantum hypothesis is a constructive model of radiation; the Boltzmann principle is the constraint that first suggested that model.
	plato.stanford.edu /entries/einstein-philscience (10162 words)

	a (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-05)
		According to the first principle of thermodynamics it is wrong because heat and energy can not annihilate, but it is heat potential that consumes and annihilates in processes where energies originate from heat.
		About this principle however, we have to considerate that it was, most probably, defined on the base of the amount of equivalent heat originated from radiation.
		In accordance with the first thermodynamic principle, and the hierarchical system the balance of heat and energies has to be, in all the states of the system, the same.
	www.fpp.uni-lj.si /~aklancic (8207 words)

	20th WCP: Cosmic Teleology and the Crisis of the Sciences
		This is because a complete explanation must terminate in a principle which (directly or indirectly) explains everything else while being self-explanatory.
		Such a principle must be necessary, infinite, and perfect (and thus divine), and it must cause exclusively by the attractive power of its own perfection (otherwise it would be in motion itself and would thus require some other explanatory principle, resulting in an infinite regress) (Aristotle, Metaphysics 1071b-1076b, Aquinas, Summa Theologiae I, Q2).
		We never advance to a principle which can explain why the universe is, and is as it is, and not otherwise.
	www.bu.edu /wcp/Papers/Scie/ScieMans.htm (3905 words)

	Annual Report of Osaka University
		Although entropy is a physical quantity characteristic of the macroscopic aspects of a system, the Boltzmann principle interrelates such macroscopic entropy with the number of thermally accessible microscopic states by the equation, S = k
		are respectively the Boltzmann and Avogadro constants, R is the gas constant, and W stands for the number of microscopic states.
		Applying this principle to the entropy of transition, one can estimate the change in the number of microscopic states at the phase transition.
	www.osaka-u.ac.jp /eng/research/report/vol3/selection/03a.html (454 words)

	"James Dye, "Natural Law in Hume's 'Of Miracles'""
		The eminent heuristic significance of the general principle of relativity is that it leads us to the search for those systems of equations that are in their general covariant formulation the simplest ones possible; among these we shall have to look for the field equations of physical space.
		It is essential to this analysis that all of these structures and their lawlike connections are obtainable by means of the principle of seeking the mathematically simplest concepts and their connections.
		It follows that a principle theory cannot constrain the class of possible constructive models for a given phenomenal domain up to the point of uniqueness or even isomorphism.
	www.soci.niu.edu /~phildept/speakers/Howard_OnEinstein.html (7427 words)

	[No title]
		Boltzmann introduced probability as a basic concept in order to explain how systems consisting of large populations of particles eventually "settle" in stationary conditions in which the mixture of the elements is most random.
		Boltzmann's principle of order asserts that the system seeks the state in which a large number of events occur simultaneously - statistically speaking - cancelling each other.
		The important point is, that Boltzmann's principle of order is based upon the assumption that molecules behave independently of each other before they mix and collide.
	www.imprint.co.uk /C&HK/vol1/v1-23sbr.htm (11881 words)

	Ch 7
		It is the disssipative structure which is responsible for ordering the processes in such a way that there is balance between generation and degeneration, that the autocatalytic self-reproduction in the system does not blow it up into pieces and keeps it imprisoned in its own tread-mill.
		If the world had appeared as a stationary machine in the mechanical view, it now seemed to be doomed to the "heat death", a notion which influenced profoundly the pessimistic philosophy and art of the turn of the century up to our days.
		And the lower dimensional shadow as the "readout" of a particular "angle" of light is an analogy of thought processes which in spoken language are one dimensional and in Asian ideograms are two dimensional slices of the complete structure or situation.
	www.music-mind.com /ch_7.htm (13640 words)

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