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Topic: Bretton Woods Agreements

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Bretton Woods system

Bretton Woods Conference

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	Bretton Woods system - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		The chief features of the Bretton Woods system were an obligation for each country to adopt a monetary policy that maintained the exchange rate of its currency within a fixed value—plus or minus one percent—in terms of gold; and the ability of the IMF to bridge temporary imbalances of payments.
		The political bases for the Bretton Woods system are in the confluence of several key conditions: the shared experiences of the Great Depression, the concentration of power in a small number of states, and the presence of a dominant power willing and able to assume a leadership role in global monetary affairs.
		The big question at the Bretton Woods conference with respect to the institution that would emerge as the IMF was the issue of future access to international liquidity and whether that source should be akin to a world central bank able to create new reserves at will or a more limited borrowing mechanism.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Bretton_Woods_system (9380 words)

	United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		The United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference, commonly known as Bretton Woods conference, was a gathering of 730 delegates from all 45 Allied nations at the Mount Washington Hotel, situated in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire to regulate the international monetary and financial order after the conclusion of World War II.
		As a result of the conference, the Bretton Woods system of exchange rate management was set up, which remained in place until the early 1970s.
		The need for postwar Western economic order was resolved with the agreements made on monetary order and open system of trade at the 1944 Bretton Woods Conference which allowed for the synthesis of Britain's desire for full employment and economic stability and the United States' desire for free trade.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Bretton_Woods_Conference (625 words)

	CONFERENCE AT BRETTON WOODS
		This Conference at Bretton Woods, representing nearly all the peoples of the world, has considered matters of international money and finance which are important for peace and prosperity.
		The agreements reached on these large and complex matters are without precedent in the history of international economic relations.
		There is agreement that the Bank should guarantee loans made by others and that through their subscriptions of capital in all countries should share with the borrowing country in guaranteeing such loans.
	www.ibiblio.org /pha/policy/1944/440722a.html (655 words)

	Bretton Woods entry
		In July 1944, in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, representatives of 44 nations met to establish the standards by which international trade and finance would be conducted once the Second World War had ended.
		Bretton Woods was certainly not the only reason for this "miracle," especially in light of the fact that not all of its provisions (in particular, the convertibility obligations) were in full force until 1958 and that the impact of U.S. policy, especially the Marshall Plan, was undoubtedly greater than that of the World Bank.
		Just as in Bretton Woods, events made it clear that fundamental disequilibria existed and that changes in either macroeconomic policies or pegged rates were necessary.
	www.econ.tcu.edu /harvey/5133/bretton.html (2338 words)

	Dáil Éireann - Volume 499 - 28 January, 1999 - Bretton Woods Agreements (Amendment) Bill, 1998: Second Stage.
		Given the scale of the development challenges facing the Bretton Woods institutions, it is not surprising that all regions of the world have not received, at all times, the attention they deserved.
		I am pleased to work side by side with the Bretton Woods institutions in their efforts to bring about order and progress in the world monetary, financial and economic systems as the critical underpinning for community growth, social solidarity and economic development among the nations of the world.
		It may well be that a new Bretton Woods Agreement will have to be drawn up to help many of the developing countries who have debt problems.
	www.oireachtas-debates.gov.ie /D/0499/D.0499.199901280004.html (11809 words)

	Dáil Éireann - Volume 499 - 02 February, 1999 - Bretton Woods Agreements (Amendment) Bill, 1998: Second Stage ...
		Callely: I welcome the opportunity to speak on the Bretton Woods Agreements (Amendment) Bill, 1998, the primary purpose of which is to give the Minister the necessary authorisation to assist in debt relief packages.
		Despite Loire agreements, Africa went from being a net exporter of food in the 1960s to a net importer of food in the 1980s.
		We must be aware of and question the close link between the Bretton Woods institutions and the foreign and economic policies of the major world players.
	historical-debates.oireachtas.ie /D/0499/D.0499.199902020011.html (11324 words)

	revrul62-56
		The Articles of Agreement became part of the statutory law of the United States upon the adoption of the Bretton Woods Agreements Act.
		The Bank was created pursuant to an agreement signed by the member nations in 1944, which is known as the `Articles of Agreement of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development' (hereinafter referred to as the Agreement).
		The agreements establishing these organizations contain provisions substantially similar to section 9(a) of Article VII of the Agreement in the instant case, and the agreements have been made part of the statutory law of the United States.
	www.taxlinks.com /rulings/1962/revrul62-56.htm (711 words)

	Re-thinking the Role of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund—On the Occasion of Their 60th Birthday - ...
		The largest protests were concentrated around the Spring meetings in April and targeted the institutions’ continued engagement in policies and practices that have kept developing countries in a trap of slow and erratic growth, growing poverty and external dependence, and dramatic increases in income inequality at both the domestic and global levels.
		Moreover, the proliferation of trade and investment agreements means that new instruments to discipline Southern economies are available to industrial countries at a lower cost (after all, trade and investment agreements lock-in the structural reforms previously enforced by the BWIs, without the need periodically to renew a loan or grant with the respective conditionalities attached).
		Finally, for the first time since the foundation of the Bretton Woods Institutions, their governance is a matter of debate at the highest level.
	www.globalpolicy.org /socecon/bwi-wto/wbank/2004/0608brettonwoods.htm (1793 words)

	Bretton Woods
		Ever-increasing pressures in the 1960s culminated in the collapse of the Bretton Woods system in 1971, and it was reluctantly replaced with a regime of floating exchange rates.
		An agreement was reached at the IMF annual meeting in Rio de Janeiro in 1967 to issue SDRs to be allocated to 104 participants.
		The collapse of the Bretton Woods system did not generate a chaos as did the collapse of the international gold standard in the 1930s.
	www.econ.iastate.edu /classes/econ355/choi/bre.htm (2871 words)

	BRETTON WOODS AGREEMENTS ACT, 1957 (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-01)
		Except as otherwise provided in this Agreement, operations on the account of the Fund shall be limited to transactions for the purpose of supplying a member, on the initiative of such member, with the currency of another member in exchange for gold or for the currency of the member desiring to make the purchase.
		If such arrangements and practices are engaged in at the date when this Agreement enters into force the member concerned shall consult with the Fund as to their progressive removal unless they are maintained or imposed under Article XIV, Section 2, in which case the provisions of Section 4 of that Article shall apply.
		Nothing in this Agreement shall affect the right of any member to impose restrictions on exchange transactions with non-members or with persons in their territories unless the Fund finds that such restrictions prejudice the interests of members and are contrary to the purposes of the Fund.
	www.irishstatutebook.ie /gen71957a.html (15231 words)

	bretton woods Bretton Woods hotels - Bretton Woods hotel reviews (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-01)
		Moreover, the institutions of Bretton Atlantic that resulted in the Atlantic Charter, which SECTION 7.
		of Agreement of the Bank, shall have full a director would otherwise be entitled to cast other words, the United States would have to promote exchange stability, to maintain orderly exchange arrangements in the territory of the member holding the members shall share the gold so distributed in colonial empires.
		The fiscal discipline imposed by Bretton Washington, DC No provision was made for international from the United States accelerated, and despite gaining World War II Reconstruction 7 (i) of this Article shall be paid the United States is hereby directed to propose international sites 2006 Expedia, Inc. All rights reserved.
	bretton-woods.lumberhome.com (2106 words)

	BRETTON WOODS AGREEMENTS (AMENDMENT) ACT, 1999 (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-01)
		Construction of references to Fund Agreement in Bretton Woods Agreements Acts, 1957 to 1999, and consequential repeal.
		-(1) In the Bretton Woods Agreements Acts, 1957 to 1999, references to the Fund Agreement shall be construed as references to the Fund Agreement as amended by the proposed amendment, the text of which is set out in the Schedule to this Act.
		(2) The Bretton Woods Agreements Acts, 1957 to 1977, and this Act shall be construed together as one Act and may be cited together as the Bretton Woods Agreements Acts, 1957 to 1999.
	www.ucc.ie /law/irlii/statutes/1999_4.htm (1896 words)

	IMF Archives: Finding Aids - Bretton Woods Conference Collection - Edward M. Bernstein Papers
		From 1940 to 1946, he was Principal Economist for the U.S. Treasury, during which time he also served as Assistant Director of the Monetary Research Division and, in 1946, as Assistant to the Secretary of the U.S. Treasury Department.
		In 1944, Bernstein was Chief Technical Advisor and Executive Secretary to the U.S. Delegation to the Bretton Woods Conference.
		Scope and content: Files contain published statements, articles, letters of endorsement from labor, political, economic and business, and other organizations supporting the Bretton Woods Agreements Act and urging its adoption and U.S. involvement in the IMF and the Bank.
	www.imf.org /external/np/arc/eng/fa/BWC/s3.htm (1486 words)

	USTR - USTR Zoellick Statement at Signing of U.S.-D.R.-Central America FTA
		It is fitting that we are in the room where the Bretton Woods Agreements were signed almost exactly 60 years ago, setting the stage for successive waves of economic cooperation and trade liberalization that have reshaped our world.
		We were careful to shape the agreement to keep our existing preference program intact and offer inspiration to countries in the region aspiring to economic growth led by trade.
		The agreement we sign today, lowering trade barriers and fostering trade among all CAFTA’s democracies, is crafted to unleash the very forces of economic dynamism that a mistaken monarchy tried to restrain.
	www.ustr.gov /Document_Library/Press_Releases/2004/August/USTR_Zoellick_Statement_at_Signing_of_US-DR-Central_America_FTA.html (1638 words)

	Bretton Woods Revisted: GATT (part 1 0f 4)
		In 1947, this agreement forged the creation of three international organizations: the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) and the International Monetary Fund.
		Embodied in the original GATT agreement is the concept of "most favored nation" (MFN) status.
		Building on the Bretton Woods agreement, there have been eight completed rounds of GATT negotiations since 1947.
	www.suite101.com /article.cfm/political_economy/5861 (507 words)

	Resisting the Merger and Acquisition of Human Rights by Trade Law: A Reply to Petersmann
		Thus he opens his analysis by stating that the 1944 Bretton Woods agreements, the 1945 UN Charter, the 1947 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), the 1948 Havana Charter and the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) `all...
		In fact, human rights are completely absent from the Bretton Woods agreements, the GATT, and the Havana Charter (although the latter did address labour rights issues).
		And indeed no historically informed observer would have expected any such reference, given that the UDHR itself was adopted after the Bretton Woods agreements and the GATT and it was only acceptable to governments on the basis of an explicit understanding that it was non-binding and created no obligations for UN Member States.
	www.ejil.org /journal/Vol13/No4/art2-02.html (979 words)

	EURO AND GOLD PRICE MANIPULATION - Print Version
		Under Bretton Woods agreements, the currencies of the IMF member countries were to be defined pro forma in weight of gold, and those "gold parities" were to be translated into par values against US dollar, whose gold parity at $35 per fine troy ounce was 888.67 milligrams (or 15 and 5/21 grains 0.9 fine).
		The initial Brretton Woods exchange disparity (with one-third tariff on American exports and one-fourth subsidy to foreign imports) would have been maintained symmetrically over the years by the same means the parity would have been maintained, i.e., by inflating foreign currencies in step with the US dollar.
		Bretton Woods system was based on gigantic gold price manipulation, very much the same as now.
	www.gold-eagle.com /editorials_00/tlaga121100pv.html (3340 words)

	TIME.com: Toward Stability -- Jan. 14, 1946 -- Page 1
		Thirty-five of the 44 nations that had signed the Bretton Woods agreements became charter members by ratifying before the Dec.
		Great Britain, which was neither very worried nor very hopeful about Bretton Woods, was just going to do her damnedest to make Bretton Woods and its related arrangements work well for Britain.
		Bretton Woods was part and parcel of the larger deal with the U.S. whereby Britain got a loan she badly needed, and in return promised to relax the exchange controls and imperial preferences which had bolstered her trade within the sterling area.
	www.time.com /time/magazine/article/0,9171,886827,00.html (676 words)

	IMF Archives: Finding Aids - Bretton Woods Conference Collection - Richard B. Brenner Papers
		Generally, subjects cover the drafting of the Bretton Woods Agreements, the ratification of the Agreements by the U.S. and other countries, and some IMF organization issues.
		Material concerning the drafting of the Bretton Woods Agreements consists of annotated drafts and related memoranda or background material (in files: Atlantic City Alternatives, IMF [Joint] Statement Drafts, IMF Working Drafts, Conference Draft Material, Final Act).
		Ratification of the Bretton Woods Agreements in other countries and economic and monetary issues particular to individual countries are documented in cables from the U.S. Department of State — with occasional copies of U.S. Treasury representatives correspondence (in files: Bretton Woods Cables, Looted Gold — Resolution VI).
	www.imf.org /external/np/arc/eng/fa/BWC/s1.htm (2193 words)

	Bretton Woods Past & Present / Bibliography
		This is a selected bibliography on the history of The United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference held in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, PA, 1944.
		Bretton Woods at forty, 1944-84 : a series of articles commemorating the fortieth anniversary of the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference held at Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, July 1-22, 1944
		Bretton Woods monetary conference: a condensation of the principal provisions
	jolis.worldbankimflib.org /Bwf/60thbibliography.htm (1466 words)

	The Bretton Woods Committee :: Washington, D.C.
		The Spring meetings of the International Monetary Fund and World Bank concluded with a successful agreement establishing a program of “multilateral surveillance” and “multilateral consultations.” This agreement would transform the role of the IMF by giving it a greater role in global policy coordination.
		According to the new agreement, member countries would use the IMF as a forum to seek solutions to imbalances such as the low U.S. savings level, the inflexibility of the Chinese exchange rate, and surpluses in Japan, Germany and among oil producers.
		Critics of the agreement contend that it is steeped in jargon and that the IMF lacks real power to force member countries to change domestic policies unless they are forced to borrow from the international financial institution.
	www.brettonwoods.org /news (2612 words)

	Monetary Theory and Bretton Woods - Cambridge University Press (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-01)
		Monetary theory was a decisive factor in the design of the reform proposals, in the Bretton Woods negotiations, and in forging the new monetary order.
		The Bretton Woods system - successful but nevertheless short-lived - suffered from latent inconsistencies, both analytical and institutional, which fatally undermined the foundations of the postwar monetary architecture and brought about the epochal transition from commodity money to fiat money.
		The Bretton Woods agreements; 8; Bretton Woods and after.
	www.cambridge.org /catalogue/print.asp?isbn=0521867592&print=y (218 words)

	The Avalon Project : The Bretton Woods Agreements
		(d) At the time this Agreement is signed on its behalf, each government shall transmit to the Government of the United States of America one one-hundredth of one percent of the price of each share in gold or United States dollars for the purpose of meeting administrative expenses of the Bank.
		(d) At the time this Agreement is signed on its behalf, each government shall transmit to the Government of the United States of America one one-hundredth of one percent of its total subscription in gold or United States dollars for the purpose of meeting administrative expenses of the Fund.
		DONE at Washington, in a single copy which shall remain deposited in the archives of the Government of the United States of America, which shall transmit certified copies to all governments whose names are set forth in Schedule A and to all governments whose membership is approved in accordance with Article II, Section 2.
	www.yale.edu /lawweb/avalon/decade/decad047.htm (17108 words)

	LaRouche Briefs Journalists on Solutions to the Global Crisis, by Lyndon H. LaRouche, Jr. (Dec. 22, 1999)
		And I would say the pre-1958 Bretton Woods agreements, which were successful under disastrous conditions of the postwar period, are the case we'd go back to.
		That under those conditions, new economic partnership agreements, and cooperation agreements, should be struck between the nations of western continental Europe, and nations such as Poland and further east and so forth, in Europe.
		There may be treaty agreements, but they have to be reached on the basis of agreement through the administration of sovereign nation-states.
	www.larouchepub.com /lar/2000/2701_webcast.html (9093 words)

	Brief Notes on GATT, NAFTA, and Other Trade Agreements
		Agreement coming out of WWII (1945) to stabilize the world economy.
		Amendments in 1996 to the IMF charter have essentially covered most of the issues the MAI was to address.
		Initiated after WWII and generally known as the Breton Woods Agreement the most recent rounds of discussion are known as the “Uruguay Round” ended in 1994 and became GATT as it is known today.
	spot.pcc.edu /~rwolf/Globalnotes.html (516 words)

	LaRouche's New Bretton Woods System
		In the United States, various state legislatures are discussing the New Bretton Woods proposal, and resolutons have been introduced in some legislatures, and it passed in the Alabama State Assembly.
		The original Bretton Woods system came into being at a conference of 44 nations beginning on July 1, 1944, in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, convened on the initiative of U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt.
		LaRouche's New Bretton Woods economic policy, including resolutions introduced in the Senate of Italy, the European Parliament, the Commonwealth of Virginia, the Kentucky House of Representatives and the Alabama House of Representatives; therefore be it
	www.schillerinstitute.org /economy/nbw/nbw.html (3494 words)

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