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	CHEMICAL ACTION - LoveToKnow Article on CHEMICAL ACTION (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-12)
		When therefore we identify chemical affinity with the maximum work which can be gained from the process in question, we reach such a definition that the direction of the process is under all conditions determined by the affinity.
		While therefore we regard as chemical affinity in the strictest sense the decrease of potential energy of the forces acting between the atoms, it is clear that the quantities here involved exhibit the simplest relations under the experimental conditions just given, for when.
		Since the chemical equilibrium is periodically attained, it follows that, as in the case of the motion of a body or of the diffusion of a dissolved substance, it must be opposed by very great friction.
	www.1911encyclopedia.org /C/CH/CHEMICAL_ACTION.htm (7959 words)

	AFFINITY - LoveToKnow Article on AFFINITY
		Taking the table of degrees within which marriage is prohibited on account of consanguinity, the rule has been thus extended to affinity, so that wherever relationship to a man himself would be a bar to marriage, relationship to his deceased wife will be the same bar, and vice versa on the husband's decease.
		Formerly by law in England, marriages within the degrees of affinity were not absolutely null, but they were liable to be annulled by ecclesiastical process during the lives of both parties; in other words, the incapacity was only a canonical, not a civil, disability.
		AFFINITY, CHEMICAL, the property or relation in virtue of which dissimilar substances are capable of entering into chemical combination with each other.
	www.1911encyclopedia.org /A/AF/AFFINITY.htm (282 words)

	§23. Sir Humphry Davy; Electricity and Chemical Affinity. VIII. The Literature of Science. Vol. 14. The Victorian ...
		In 1807, he said —“May not the electrical energy be identical with chemical affinity?” He used the expressions—“different electrical states,” and “degrees of exaltation of the electrical states,” of the particles of bodies.
		Recent researches into the subject of chemical affinity have established the great importance of the conceptions adumbrated by Davy in these expressions.
		Chemistry, the study of the changes of composition and properties which happen when homogeneous substances interact, has always been closely connected with physics, the study of the behaviour of substances apart from those interactions of them in which composition is changed.
	www.bartleby.com /224/0823.html (678 words)

	Guldberg & Waage : Etudes sur l'Affinité
		The imperfect chemical compounds occur under the influence of forces which without a doubt are small in comparison to the forces which come into consideration in the formation and decompostion of the perfect chemical compounds.
		If we maintain that for a given chemical process two opposing forces are in effect, one which strives to form new substances and one which strives to restore the original compounds from the new, it is enlightening that, when in the chemical process these forces become equally large, the system is in equilibrium.
		In contrast, Berthollet in 1801-1803 developed in his affinity the view that affinities of substances, in addition to being dependent on their specific nature, also -- and the important thing -- are modified by the original amount of the substances as well as by their physical character, for example volatility and insolubility.
	chimie.scola.ac-paris.fr /sitedechimie/hist_chi/text_origin/guldberg_waage/Concerning-Affinity.htm (3275 words)

	[No title]
		In old books (generally 19 th century), the words 'physical and chemical change' are not used but the words "cohesion" and "affinity" are sometimes opposed in the same way or a variety of other phrases with a similar meaning may be opposed.
		It is worthwhile noting the opposition of the words 'physical and chemical', not as part of the phrase 'physical and chemical change', which is the main focus, but simply as an early date where the opposition is used.
		An indication of the debate, relevant to the issue of chemical change, is that one dictionary of chemistry (Watts, 1874) was critical of a handbook of chemistry (Gmelin, 1848) with regard to the way it used the word "affinity".
	www.aare.edu.au /94pap/palmb94417.txt (4951 words)

	Couper
		Affinity of kind is the special affinities manifested among the elements, the one for the other, andc., as carbon for oxygen, for chlorine, for hydrogen, andc.
		This affinity is modified by the electric position of the element to which the respective atoms of oxygen are bound.
		The second, which is equal to 5, is found, amongst other chemical compounds, in the chloride and in the oxide of ammonium, as well as in nitric acid.
	web.lemoyne.edu /~giunta/couper/couper.html (4280 words)

	CHAPT8
		This is achieved by the use of an affinity reagent with multiple reactivity or the use of a series of reagents with the reactive moiety at different positions in the molecule.
		In a successful chemical modification experiment with a site-specific reagent a number of different experimental approaches must be used to establish that the reagent is indeed site specific prior to the identification of the modified residue or residues.
		Affinity labeling has also found use in the introduction of specific, conformationally sensitive probes or fluorophores to be used in resonance energy transfer studies to estimate distances between points on a protein molecule.
	www.richmond.edu /~jbell2/CHAPT8.html (3532 words)

	HYLE 7-1 (2001): Article: Logic and chemistry in Hegel’s philosophy
		Hegel claimed that the chemical material presupposed in the logical development could be replaced with specified proportions of measures, derived from developing and specifying the category ‘measure’.
		The development of the category ‘elective affinity’ into ‘nodal line of proportions of measures’ — the next step in Hegel’s derivation[33] — should happen in processes where elective affinities interact with each other, to be represented by proportions of their measures.
		However, in alloys the densities of the components are the measures to be compared, whereas in chemical compounds the stoichiometric masses of the reacting substances are the measures to be set in relation.
	www.hyle.org /journal/issues/7/ruschig.htm (6492 words)

	Extracorporeal affinity adsorption methods for the treatment of atherosclerosis, cancer, degenerative and autoimmune ...
		Extracorporeal affinity adsorption treatments which are aimed at the substantial removal of two or more compounds that are etiological in the pathogenesis of diseases in man provide effective therapeutic intervention means for these diseases.
		The device of claim 1 wherein the second specific affinity binding means is a non-immunological chemical affinity adsorbent.
		The device of claim 11 wherein at least one of the specific affinity binding means is a non-immunological chemical affinity adsorbent.
	www.pharmcast.com /PatentToSubWeb/Licensing/AvailablePatents/MeirStrahilevitz/Strahilevitz_ExtracorporealAffinity111102.htm (580 words)

	Electron affinity (from chemical bonding) -- Encyclopædia Britannica
		This energy is expressed as the electron affinity, which is the energy released when an electron is attached to an atom of the element.
		Whatever the type of chemical bond (ionic, covalent, metallic) between atoms, changes in the atomic structure are restricted to the outermost, or valence, electrons.
		The military use of chemicals, bacteria, viruses, toxins, or poisons to injure or kill soldiers or civilians is called chemical and biological warfare.
	www.britannica.com /eb/article-43396?tocId=43396 (909 words)

	Chapter 6, Physics and Process Philosophy, T (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-12)
		Chemical combination generates properties and relations that are not simply related to the properties and relations of the components.
		Chemical affinity is a proper 'state function' (like volume or pressure) of a chemical sample, but only if a particular reaction is specified.
		Ordinarily, chemical reaction mixtures change in such a way as to smoothly approach an equilibrium state ¾ than is, concentrations change (either increase or decrease) while chemical affinity (with respect to the reactions that are occurring) steadily decreases.
	www.georgetown.edu /faculty/earleyj/constraints.htm (4354 words)

	The high-pressure genesis of hydrocarbons
		The constraints imposed upon chemical evolution by the second law of thermodynamics are briefly reviewed; and the effective prohibition of transformation, in the regime of temperatures and pressures characteristic of the near-surface crust of the Earth, of biological molecules into hydrocarbon molecules heavier than methane is recognized.
		However, the thermodynamic Affinity for the “charcoal burner’s reaction” to produce diamond is 105.02 kcal, which quantity is also positive, and therefore not immediately prohibited by the second law as expressed solely by de Donder’s inequality, the first of equations (2).
		The chemical conditions of the Earth, particularly near its surface, are oxidizing, not reducing; of the gases in the Earth’s atmosphere and crust, hydrogen is significantly absent and methane a very minor constituent.
	www.gasresources.net /AlkaneGenesis.htm (5213 words)

	Surface plamon resonance sensor (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-12)
		A fan of laser beams is focused through a prism and a thin metal layer at a chemical affinity layer whose refractive indix changes upon reacting with a specific chemical agent supposed to be present in the liquid.
		A thin metal film is sandwiched between an affinity layer of a chemical substance capable of changing the refractive index upon reacting with the agent in the liquid and a prism.
		Hence, simply by determining the angle of the damped beam, the refractive index change of the affinity layer and, thereby, the concentration of the chemical agent may be determined.
	www.risoe.dk /ofd/competence/SPR_sensor.htm (303 words)

	The Forces of Matter, Delivered before a Juvenile Auditory at the Royal Institution of Great Britain during the ... (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-12)
		There is another remarkable circumstance in chemical affinity, which is, that it is capable of either waiting or acting at once.
		Now this chemical action is set going exactly as it would be it I had lighted the candle, or as it is when the servant puts coals on and lights the fire: the substances wait until we do something which is able to start the action.
		It is by this kind of attraction of the different particles one to the other that we are enabled to trace the laws of chemical affinity, and the wonderful variety of the exertions of these laws.
	www.bonus.com /contour/bartlettqu/http@@/www.bartleby.com/30/4.html (3237 words)

	main
		Therefore, the compound is equivalent to a gene knock-out or the over-expression of the gene in conventional genetics.
		An affinity matrix on a bead or tagged molecule (photoaffinity, chemical affinity, biotin or fluorescence) obtained by modifying the lead compound (Figure 1-c), is commonly used in the identification of the target protein.
		Four ribosomal accessory proteins have been identified by this affinity matrix study, and the phenotypes expressed in complimentary gene knock-out experiments have been shown to be very similar to those seen in the small molecule treatment.
	www.nyu.edu /classes/ytchang/project.htm (1241 words)

	Physical Chemistry Citations
		ABSTRACT - A thermodynamic approach to the study of chemical reaction dynamics has appeared in a series of papers wherein reactions are described in terms of the rate of change of a thermodynamic function rather than in the conventional terms of the rate of the concentrations of reacting species.
		The present paper demonstrates that only for a chemical reaction traversing this singular thermodynamic reaction path can the affinity decay rate be determined between reaction initiation and equilibrium, even for reactions that can proceed along any of several alternative mechanistic reaction paths.
		The comparisons indicate that linear phenomenological relationship between chemical affinity and reaction velocity cannot be justified and there exists a basic incompatibility between the thermodynamic and the mechanistic approach to reaction kinetics.
	www.pages.drexel.edu /~garfinkm/PathRef.html (822 words)

	REFUTE (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-12)
		But as every mistake carries with it serious consequences, the result of this acknowledgement is that the mechanical theory, as we shall see later, cannot reconcile with its own principles either the regular decomposition of bodies or the return of the elements back to their natural state.
		Thermal Phenomena; — According to the Mechanists, the generating cause of the heat discharged by chemical combinations is two-fold; it is due partly to the intensity of the molecular collisions, partly to the breaking up of the equilibrium existing between the atoms.
		As soon as we were to identify all chemical energies with local motion pure and simple, the constancy of the phenomenon and its absolute independence in the presence of alien energies which provoke it, would disappear entirely.
	users.colloquium.co.uk /~BARRETT/REFUTE.HTM (1694 words)

	Nernst's Nobel prize (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-12)
		As with other forces, the measure of the chemical affinity is the magnitude of the counte: force which this affinity can manage to overcome.
		Numerous measurements of the change of temperature during chemical reactions - so-called thermochemical measurements - have been carried out for almost a hundred years, and chemists for their part have all been convinced that one day a connection would be shown between these temperature changes and the chemical affinity.
		Galvanic cells are particularly suited for such tests, where use is made of the chemical affnity in some reaction for the production of electrical energy, and where an exact and easily determined measure of the chemical affinity is available in the voltage produced by the cell.
	chem.ch.huji.ac.il /~eugeniik/history/nernst_nobel.htm (1242 words)

	John Dalton
		The opinions I more particularly allude to, are those of Berthollet on the Laws of chemical affinity; such as that chemical affinity is proportional to the mass, and that in all chemical unions, there exist insensible gradations in the proportions of the constituent principles.
		Chemical analysis and synthesis go no farther than to the separation of particles one from another, and to their reunion.
		That water is a binary compound of hydrogen and oxygen, and the relative weights of the two elementary atoms are as 1:7, nearly; 2d.
	web.lemoyne.edu /~giunta/dalton.html (1411 words)

	CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
		There is a natural affinity between chemical engineering, biotechnology, and medicine, and the department offers a pre-medicine and bioengineering option.
		Applications of com- puters in chemical engineering are widespread, and the chemical engineer who has solid preparation in computer science and engineering is in demand.
		Chemical engineers have the required background in chemistry and transport theory to contribute significantly in this area.
	www.colorado.edu /sacs/catalog96-97/engineering/CHEMICAL_E.html (1587 words)

	Chemical symbol -- Facts, Info, and Encyclopedia article (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-12)
		A chemical symbol is an (A shortened form of a word or phrase) abbreviation or short representation of the name of a (Any of the more than 100 known substances (of which 92 occur naturally) that cannot be separated into simpler substances and that singly or in combination constitute all matter) chemical element.
		Natural elements all have (An arbitrary sign (written or printed) that has acquired a conventional significance) symbols of one or two letters; some man-made elements have temporary symbols of three letters.
		Chemical symbols are listed in the (A tabular arrangement of the chemical elements according to atomic number as based on the periodic law) periodic table and are used as shorthand and in (Click link for more info and facts about chemical equation) chemical equations, e.g.,
	www.absoluteastronomy.com /encyclopedia/c/ch/chemical_symbol.htm (202 words)

	University of Colorado at Boulder Catalog \| 2000-2001 \| Search
		Chemical engineers can make major contributions in the fields of pollution prevention and control, resource utilization, and environmental improvement.
		Applications of computers in chemical engineering are widespread, and the chemical engineer who has solid preparation in computer science and engineering is in demand.
		Since chemical engineering already requires most of the premed courses, it is a logical choice for students who desire an engineering degree and the opportunity to pursue a medical profession.
	www.colorado.edu /sacs/catalog00-01/c.html?6-9-1 (931 words)

	Faraday Lectures Updated: Substances -- Solids, Fluids, Gases and Chemical Affinity (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-12)
		For chemical changes to occur, the substances must be attracted to each other.
		There will be no chemical reaction, but the attraction is similar to the affinity shown by substances that do react chemically.
		This large scale affinity is easily seen by the eye, while the majority of chemical reactions are at the micro scale and the affinity is not easily observed.
	www.woodrow.org /teachers/chemistry/institutes/faraday/lab1.html (2118 words)

	Evolution Of Love
		The elective affinity of positive and receptive atoms is the first manifestation of the principle of love in nature..
		Every shade of inclination, from complete indifference to the fiercest passion, is exemplified in the chemical relation of the various elements towards each other, just as we find in the psychology of man, and especially in the life of the sexes.
		Goethe, in his classical romance, Affinities, compared the relations of pairs of lovers with the phenomenon of the same name in the formation of chemical combinations.
	www.oldandsold.com /articles29/evolution-36.shtml (1685 words)

	HYLE 6-1 (2000): Pragmatism, Belief, and Reduction. Stereoformulas and Atomic Models in Early Stereochemistry
		It was precisely this discord between the chemical usefulness of the tetrahedron and the properties of the known attractive forces that prompted chemists to offer physical models of the carbon atom and valence that would explain the tetrahedron and van’t Hoff’s model for bonding.
		The final goal of chemical theory, according to Meyer, was a complete reduction of chemical reactions to mathematical mechanics, because "nature is not understood until we are able to reduce its phenomena to simple movements, mathematically traceable".[50] He was certain that all chemical explanations would one day be completely understood in mathematical terms.
		Describing chemical formulas published before 1889 as ‘stereoformulas’ is therefore somewhat anachronistic, but for the purposes of this article, I have chosen to use it for the sake of clarity and consistency, rather than historical accuracy.
	www.hyle.org /journal/issues/6/ramberg.htm (8059 words)

	PHYS3410 Lecture 4
		Theophile De Donder (1872 — 1957) formulation of chemical affinity was founded on the concept of chemical potential (introduced by Josiah Willard Gibbs, 1839 — 1907).
		This is the “uncompensated heat” of Clausius for chemical reactions.
		A non-zero affinity implies that the system is not in thermodynamic equilibrium and that chemical reactions will continue to occur, driving system towards equilibrium.
	www.phys.unsw.edu.au /PHYS3410/lecture4.html (802 words)

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