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Topic: Coldest temperature achieved on earth

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	Coldest temperature achieved on earth - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		The lowest temperature ever recorded on earth was −89.4 °C recorded in 1983 at the Russian Vostok Station in Antarctica.
		This is still higher than the lowest temperatures achieved in cryogenic labs.
		Moving away from the earth, the coldest temperature found in nature is the Boomerang Nebula, at about one kelvin, which is cooler than the cosmic microwave background radiation.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Coldest_temperature_achieved_on_earth (369 words)

	math lessons - Coldest temperature achieved on earth
		The lowest temperature ever recorded on earth was −89.4 C (−129F) recorded in 1983 at the Russian Base Vostok in Antarctica.
		This is still greater than the minimum temperatures achieved in cryogenic labs.
		In 1908 he managed to lower the temperature to less than one degree above absolute zero, which is −273.15° degrees below the freezing point of water.
	www.mathdaily.com /lessons/Coldest_temperature_achieved_on_earth (151 words)

	Occultations
		Accurate temperatures from GPS, at high southern latitudes, should improve the determination of the structure and evolution of the southern polar vortex during its annual cycle, and the characterization of the ozone hole formation and the subsequent dispersal of ozone-poor air over the southern hemisphere.
		Because of the low atmospheric density at these altitudes, the physical temperature of the radiosonde thermistor is actually determined by a balance between conductive heat transfer with the air temperature, absorbed long-wave and solar radiation and the long-wave radiation emission of the sensor.
		Typically, tropospheric temperature retrievals from limb sounders are complicated by the presence of aerosols and clouds in the troposphere.
	genesis.jpl.nasa.gov /zope/GENESIS/Background/Occultations (4945 words)

	Temperature
		Thermodynamic temperature is the fundamental temperature; its unit is the kelvin which is defined as the fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water.
		The way that the gas temperature scale and the thermodynamic temperature scale are shown to be identical is based on the microscopic interpretation of temperature, which postulates that the macroscopic measurable quantity called temperature is a result of the random motions of the microscopic particles that make up a system.
		Temperature is a measure of the energy of thermal motion and, at a temperature of zero, the energy reaches a minimum (quantum mechanically, the zero-point motion remains at 0 K).
	members.tripod.com /moon-landings/id43.htm (4626 words)

	Guinness World Records - Index (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-22)
		Earth is the densest planet, with an average density of 5.517 times that of water.
		The faintest of the nine planets as seen from Earth is Pluto which has a magnitude of 15.0, and can only be viewed through a telescope.
		The latest observations of LBV 1806-20, 45,000 light years from Earth, indicate it is between 5 and 40 million times more luminous than the Sun.
	www.guinnessworldrecords.com /index/records.asp?id=27&pg=1 (519 words)

	Heike Kamerlingh Onnes - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		From 1882 to 1923 he served as professor of experimental physics at the University of Leiden.
		Onnes managed, using the Joule-Thomson effect, to lower the temperature to less than one degree above absolute zero, reaching 0.9 K. At the time this was the coldest place on earth.
		Among his later achievements was winning the 1913 Nobel Prize in Physics for (in the words of the committee) "his investigations on the properties of matter at low temperatures which led, inter alia, to the production of liquid helium".
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Heike_Kamerlingh_Onnes (635 words)

	HubbleSite - Glossary
		A temperature scale on which the freezing point of water is 0° C and the boiling point is 100° C. Chemical Compound
		A greater-than-minimum energy state of any atom that is achieved when at least one of its electrons resides at a greater-than-normal distance from its parent nucleus.
		The minimum energy state of an atom that is achieved when all of its electrons have the lowest possible energy and therefore are as close to the nucleus as possible.
	hubblesite.org /reference_desk/glossary/physics.shtml (2696 words)

	BBC News \| Sci/Tech \| The coldest place in the Universe
		The record low temperature, achieved with a cloud of rubidium atoms, is reached firstly by pre-cooling the atoms by bouncing lasers off them.
		The lowest temperature is absolute zero at -273.15 C or 0 Kelvin or K. The absolute temperature scale is named after the physicist Lord Kelvin.
		The lowest temperature ever recorded on the Earth was -89 C in Antarctica, certainly chilly, but not very cold in absolute terms at 184 K. The coldest place in the Solar System is probably Triton, a moon of the distant planet Neptune, some 2,800 million miles away.
	news.bbc.co.uk /2/hi/science/nature/254305.stm (724 words)

	AllRefer.com - low-temperature physics (Physics) - Encyclopedia
		The temperature scale used in low-temperature physics is the Kelvin temperature scale, or absolute temperature scale, which is based on the behavior of an idealized gas (see gas laws; kinetic-molecular theory of gases).
		If the vapor over the liquid helium is continually pumped away, even lower temperatures, down to less than 1°K, can be achieved because more helium must evaporate to maintain the proper vapor pressure of the liquid helium.
		Reaching such low temperatures becomes increasingly difficult, as each temperature drop requires finding some kind of energy within the substance and then devising a means of removing this energy.
	reference.allrefer.com /encyclopedia/L/lowtempe.html (560 words)

	Cryogenics
		Cryogenics is the study of low temperatures or the production of the same, and is often confused with cryobiology, the study of the effect of low temperatures on organisms, or the study of cryopreservation.
		Likewise, cryonics is the nascent study of the cryopreservation of the human body, is not an established science like cryogenics and is generally viewed with skepticism by most scientists and doctors today.
		Leiden, Netherlands is sometimes called "The Coldest Place on Earth", because of the revolutions in cryogenics that happened there.
	www.guajara.com /wiki/en/wikipedia/c/cr/cryogenics.html (218 words)

	Infrared Imagery from Meteorological Satellites
		At the temperature of the Earth and its atmosphere these emissions are concentrated in the long wave band at wavelengths longer than about 4 µm.
		At a temperature of 800 K, the peak of the emitted radiation occurs close to 4 µm.
		Using these techniques the temperature of the ocean surface and of thick clouds, where the emissivity is close to one, may be measured with useful accuracy.
	www.wmo.ch /web/sat/en/ap2-10.htm (864 words)

	Untitled (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-22)
		Temperatures in its central core are estimated to reach about 15,000,000° K; at the solar surface (the photosphere) the temperature has decreased to about 5600° C. (5770° K; 10,400 ° F).
		Between the corona and the photosphere is a gaseous atmosphere called the chromosphere (brighter inner zone) in which temperatures vary around 500,000°K. The next image, made by the SOHO satellite launched in 1996, shows the photospheric surface, with its distinctive convective patches known as granules and sunspots.
		As time went on the temperature reduction in gas clouds that happens as heavy "metals" are dispersed from supernovae has caused increasing proportions of smaller stars so that the population of galaxies has experienced overall increases in numbers of individuals.
	rst.gsfc.nasa.gov /Sect20/A5a.html (9302 words)

	[No title]
		The Earth as the Perfect Blanket Loren C. Impson c.1992 Loren C. Impson For the past several years, I have observed structures as they slowly deteriorate through the actions of the wind, sun, moisture, and other natural enemies of wood-framed houses.
		In all earth sheltered structures, the soil moderates the inside temperature from the outside blazing sun or icy wind, acts as an infiltration barrier, dampens sound, and discourages vandalism.
		The thermal mass of the earth under the insulation holds the desired heat in the house; the plastic sheeting protects from unwanted moisture.
	www.ibiblio.org /pub/academic/environment/alternative-energy/energy-resources/homepower-magazine/archives/29/29p22.txt (1934 words)

	"Global Warming" at a glance (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-22)
		Dark laminae thickness is strongly correlated to average June temperature from Kimmirut (r = 0.82), reflecting the influence of temperature on snowmelt and fluxes of runoff and suspended sediment.
		Overall, interdecadal temperature fluctuation, do not appear to have been more than ±1°C seasonally in most regions although the rise in temperature from the low levels of the 1810s to the high point of the 1980s may be around +2°C in mean-annual temperature for many regions.
		Temperature maxima during the Medieval Warm Period between 800 and 1300 AD are in average about 1.7°C higher than the minima in the Little Ice Age and similar to present-day values.
	www.junkscience.com /MSU_Temps/Warming_Proxies.htm (6976 words)

	Asteroids and Near-Earth Objects
		If life on Earth is so inextricably linked to changes in the atmospheric levels of oxygen, the recent discovery of the pygmy elephant in Borneo, which is only about half the size of the other elephant species does raise an alarm in the mind and the need to examine the Oxygen Theory closely.
		If the influence of individual explosive eruptions on the Earth's temperature is comparatively small, due to the limited amount of aerosol that the stratosphere gains after every eruption, it is obvious that the Earth's temperature changes much more drastically when many explosive eruptions occur one after another within a short time interval.
		It was hypothesized that increased density of the stratospheric aerosol layer caused a drastic decrease in the influx of solar radiation to the Earth's surface.
	www.trufax.org /general/oxygen.html (6165 words)

	Heike Kamerlingh Onnes
		New proofs of the rotation of the earth).
		In 1908 Onnes was the first physicist who made this liquefaction of helium possible (using cryostats).
		By then this was by far the coldest place on earth.
	www.mlahanas.de /Physics/Bios/HeikeKamerlinghOnnes.html (540 words)

	Lab3H97.html
		The majority of the U.V. light is absorbed by the ozone layer and heats the atmosphere, as a consequence the majority of the solar output that reaches the earth's surface, and is absorbed, is in the form of short wave radiation of visible light.
		On the average about 50% of the incoming solar radiation is absorbed by the earth surface, while another 20% is absorbed by the clouds and gases such as ozone in the atmosphere.
		The amount of radiation energy that reaches the surface of the earth in one or two weeks is equivalent to the fossil fuel energy stored in all of the earth's known reserves of coal, oil, and natural gas.
	virtual.parkland.edu /kyoung/labs/solarlab.htm (1960 words)

	Geotimes — July 2005 — Collision Course: Deep Impact
		Comets are some of the oldest and coldest components left over from the outer edges of the solar nebula, from which the planets formed more than 4.5 billion years ago.
		When heated by the sun upon entering the inner solar system, the ice, dust and organic material that compose comets are driven from their centers into the vacuum of space.
		Major telescopes on Earth and in space will be observing the comet before, during and after the impact, across the range of the electromagnetic spectrum.
	www.geotimes.org /july05/feature_deepimpact.html (2595 words)

	The Sofia Open Content Initiative - Physical Geography (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-22)
		Instead, the surface temperature depends on the geography, with land and water requiring very different amounts of energy to change their temperature.
		Note that the earth's orbit is not circular (when is it farther from the sun, when is it closer?).
		Insolation Insolation is the primary cause for surface temperature on Earth.
	sofia.fhda.edu /gallery/geography/assignments/assignment02.html (1377 words)

	About Temperature
		The constants a and b depend on the substance used and may be evaluated by specifying two temperature points on the scale, such as 32° for the freezing point of water and 212° for its boiling point.
		For example, the element mercury is liquid in the temperature range of -38.9° C to 356.7° C (we'll discuss the Celsius ° C scale later).
		The concept of temperature is as fundamental a physical concept as the three fundamental quantities of mechanics - mass, length, and time.
	eo.ucar.edu /skymath/tmp2.html (4839 words)

	Passive cooling (Henry Spencer)
		Since the flbody temperature >of empty space is around ~4K that sufficient to liquify hydrogen.
		The temperature of deep space is not just the fl-body temperature, by the way, because things like stars contribute some extra.
		So reaching very low temperatures with passive cooling and sane radiator areas requires truly fanatical minimization of heat leaks, which is quite difficult for big tanks.
	www.yarchive.net /space/spacecraft/passive_cooling.html (759 words)

	HighBeam Encyclopedia - low-temperature physics
		The temperature scale used in low-temperature physics is the Kelvin temperature scale, or absolute temperature scale, which is based on the behavior of an idealized gas (see gas laws ; kinetic-molecular theory of gases).
		Ordinary ice, dry ice (solid carbon dioxide), and liquid air may be used successively to cool a substance down to about 80°K (about -190°C).
		Moisture behaviour of a massive concrete slab with a low temperature floor heating system during the initial drying period.
	www.encyclopedia.com /html/l1/lowtempe.asp (764 words)

	Earth Observation Quarterly No. 65
		The temperature of this layer is typically several tenths of a degree colder than that of the `bulk' ocean a few millimetres beneath, and is known as the `skin' temperature.
		The second physical characteristic is the increase of temperature that occurs over a burned surface during daytime, due to strong solar irradiance absorp- tion and the absence of evo-transpira- tion that normally transfers energy to the atmosphere in form of latent heat through water vapour.
		The GOME instrument is a UV/VIS spectrometer measuring the Earth's spectral reflectiv- ity with a resolution of 0.2-0.4 nm.
	earth.esa.int /workshops/atsr_workshop_1999/EOQ65 (15770 words)

	What's a CCD bakeout, anyway?
		The back end of the EIT telescope, unfortunately, is a difficult place from which to escape, because of the plate holding the final, thin aluminum filter just in front of the CCD, and a labyrinthine venting system (designed to prevent stray light).
		According to the best thermal models available, this raised the temperature of the EIT CCD to over +35 C. Tests after the recovery of the spacecraft in 1998 September showed that not only had the CCD regained much of its lost sensitivity (~ 60%), but the "slush" appeared to have gone away --- for good.
		Unfortunately, the current press of deep-space missions supported by those antennas means we generally lose up to half of the data we could be taking during keyholes, and we have very little real-time contact in which to insure the health and operational safety of the instrument.
	umbra.nascom.nasa.gov /eit/CCD_bakeout.html (692 words)

	Cool Facts
		Neptune's moon Triton is the coldest place in the solar system, with a surface temperature of -235 degrees Celsius (-390 degrees Fahrenheit).
		Relative to the planet Earth, the fastest speed humans have achieved was 24,791 miles per hour (39,914 km/hr), by the Apollo 10 astronauts, on their return trip from the moon in 1969.
		If the Sun is taken as a fixed point, then all the humans on Earth are moving at about 66,660 miles per hour (107,320 km/hr) as the Earth follows its orbit.
	members.tripod.com /philomanshomepage/coolfact.htm (1219 words)

	Japan prepares to launch the coldest object in space (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-22)
		The absence of all heat, called absolute zero, is 0.0 Kelvin; the coldest reaches of space are a balmy three Kelvin.
		The wavelength of radiation produced by an object is usually related to its temperature.
		Along with the XRS are four X-ray Imaging Spectrometer (XIS) instruments, a collaboration among Japanese universities and institutions and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology Center for Space Research, and the Hard X-Ray Detector (HXD), built by the University of Tokyo and ISAS.
	spacescience.com /headlines/y2000/ast07feb_1.htm (873 words)

	PRESS RELEASE IBM and Georgia Tech Break Silicon Speed Record (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-22)
		Such extremely cold temperatures are found naturally only in outer space, but can be artificially achieved on Earth using ultra-cold materials such as liquid helium.
		The chips used in the research are from a prototype fourth-generation SiGe technology fabricated by IBM on a 200-millimeter wafer.
		Achieving such extreme speeds in silicon-based technology -- which can be manufactured using conventional low-cost techniques -- could provide a pathway to high-volume applications.
	www.marketwire.com /mw/release_html_b1?release_id=137123&tsource=3 (594 words)

	ESA - Space Science - Home - What is a SOHO/EIT CCD ‘bakeout’?
		suppress the ‘snow’) and also to prevent cosmic ray hits from permanently damaging the detector, the EIT CCD is usually operated at a temperature of about -67 °C. This very low temperature is achieved by keeping the CCD chip in thermal contact with a titanium ‘cold finger’ that is attached to a radiator plate.
		The back end of the EIT telescope near the CCD is, unfortunately, the coldest and most difficult place for these vapours to escape from.
		By raising the CCD temperature to approximately 16 °C, the slush evaporates from the detector (if only temporarily) and electron traps in the CCD material are removed, restoring the sensitivity of the detector.
	www.esa.int /esaSC/SEMN6TVLWFE_index_2.html (397 words)

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