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Topic: Confocal laser scanning microscopy

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	Olympus Microscopy Resource Center: Specialized Microscopy Techniques - Confocal Microscopy (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-17)
		Laser scanning confocal microscopy represents one of the most significant advances in optical microscopy ever developed, primarily because the technique enables visualization deep within both living and fixed cells and tissues and affords the ability to collect sharply defined optical sections from which three-dimensional renderings can be created.
		In confocal microscopy, fluorescence emission is directed through a pinhole aperture positioned near the image plane to exclude light from fluorescent structures located away from the objective focal plane, thus reducing the amount of light available for image formation.
		In contrast, the excitation region of a laser scanning confocal microscope is similar to that of a widefield microscope.
	www.olympusmicro.com /primer/techniques/confocal/index.html (2577 words)

	Olympus Microscopy Resource Center: Virtual Microscopy - Laser Scanning Confocal Microscopy (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-17)
		Laser scanning confocal microscopes employ a pair of pinhole apertures to limit the specimen focal plane to a confined volume approximately a micron in size.
		As the scan speed is increased to higher values, a corresponding increase in the amount of background noise captured by the photomultipliers is observed in the confocal images.
		Confocal microscopy, multiphoton excitation, and deconvolution techniques enable observation of the details within thick specimens by a process known as optical sectioning, without the artifacts that accompany specimen preparation by physical sectioning.
	www.olympusmicro.com /primer/virtual/confocal/index.html (1195 words)

	Confocal Imaging
		n a confocal imaging system a single point of excitation light (or sometimes a group of points or a slit) is scanned across the specimen (see animation 1).
		Confocal imaging can offer another advantage in favorable situations (small pinhole size, bright specimen): the resolution that is obtained can be better by a factor of up to 1.4 than the resolution obtained with the microscope operated conventionally.
		Multiple-beam confocal microscopes have a higher speed potential than point-scanners because their inherent parallelism avoids fluorophore saturation enabling higher levels of excitation to be used.
	www.loci.wisc.edu /confocal/confocal.html (1192 words)

	Chapter 1 -- Looking inside cells and tissues
		Confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) is a relatively new light microscopical imaging technique (introduced around 1980 by M. Petran and A. Boyde) which has found wide applications in the biological sciences [c.f.
		To image the specimen point by point, a collimated, polarized laser beam is deflected stepwise in the x- and y-direction by a scanning unit (not shown) before it is reflected by a dichroic mirror (beam splitter) so as to pass through the objective lens of the microscope, and focused onto the specimen.
		The confocal part of a CLSM consists of an elaborate, highly folded optical bench on which the laser, all the filters, an oscillating-mirror or acousto-optic scanning device, and the detector are mounted.
	www.mih.unibas.ch /Booklet/Booklet96/Chapter1/Chapter1.html (1216 words)

	Teagasc - Project Report - 4215 - Assessment of Food Ingredient Functionality using Laser Microscopy
		Confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) is one of the most useful microscopy techniques for studying the microstructure of a wide variety of foods, in particular dairy products.
		CLSM was used to visualise the gelation of milk proteins, whey protein concentrates and b-lactoglobulin.
		CLSM was used to visualise the undisturbed internal structure of dairy spreads and image analysis was carried out on the confocal images.
	www.teagasc.ie /research/reports/dairyproduction/4215/eopr-4215.htm (1611 words)

	Microscopy Shared Research Facility - VCU (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-17)
		Confocal laser scanning microscopy allows for high resolution, multi-channel 3-dimensional imaging of fluorescently-labeled or reflective specimens.
		The advantage over conventional widefield light microscopy is that the optics of the confocal microscope remove "blurred" light originating from outside the focal plane of interest, thus generating an “optical section”.
		The facility houses a Leica TCS-SP2 AOBS confocal laser scanning microscope (inverted) with a spectrophotometer scan head, a high resolution Märzhäuser MCX-2 motorized XY stage and 3 confocal detectors (plus a transmitted light detector).
	www.vcu.edu /anatomy/microscopy/confocal.shtml (224 words)

	Confocal laser scanning microscopy - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		I drew the figure of the confocal principle with Xfig.
		Coherence of the laser light Small size of the illuminated field (point scanning) see : "foundations of confocal scanned imaging in light microscopy" by Shinya Inoue in "Handbook of biological confocal microscopy" JB Pawley.
		For instance, confocal microscopes are still being made today that use a mercury lamp instead of a laser.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Confocal_laser_scanning_microscopy (365 words)

	Confocal laser scanning microscopy - Fraunhofer Institute for Laser Technology ILT
		Using laser wavelengths in the visible wavelength spectrum (400 nm — 700 nm), a diffractionlimited lateral resolution of roughly 150 nm and an axial resolution of around 450 nm can be achieved in the visible shortwave light spectrum.
		The Fraunhofer ILT employs demonstrators using confocal microscopy technology primarily when there is a requirement to detect weak signals with high signal-to-noise ratios in femtoliter volume samples.
		A further use of confocal laser scanning microscopy is in measuring the surface topology of reflective materials, particularly laser-produced microstructures.
	www.ilt.fraunhofer.de /eng/100757.html (347 words)

	Confocal Microscopy
		Confocal laser scanning microscopy was an important invention of the 80ies, since it offers observation of thin optical sections in thick, intact specimens.
		Between laser and beam splitter, where the light is mirrored into the objective, an excitation aperture (called pinhole) produces a sufficiently thin laser beam.
		The principle of a Laser (light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation) is based on the fact that excited atoms or molecules when impinged by quanta of a certain energy content will radiate photons of a wavelength which are perfectly coherent; i.e.
	www.plbio.kvl.dk /~als/confocal.htm (898 words)

	biocompatible interfaces - confocal laser scanning microscopy (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-17)
		Laser Scanning Confocal Microscopy (LSCM, also referred to as CSLM, Confocal Scanning Laser Microscopy) is now established as a valuable tool for obtaining high resolution images and 3-D reconstructions of a variety of biological specimens.
		A confocal aperture (pinhole) is placed in front of the photodetector, such that the fluorescent light (not the reflected light!) from points on the specimen that are not within the focal plane (the so called out-of-focus light) where the laser beam was focussed will be largly obstructed by the pinhole.
		It should be noted that most laser scanning confocal microscopes consist of a confocal unit attached to a conventional fluorescence microscope.
	www.ipfdd.de /research/res16/a17/a17.html (492 words)

	Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-17)
		The Confocal Laser Scanning Microscope (CLSM) visualizes the 3D surface structure of samples as well as the 3D distribution of emitted fluorescence inside (transparent) samples.
		The CLSM scans a highly focused laser spot across the surface area to be imaged and collects the reflected light / fluorescence to form a normal optical image.
		The spatial resolution of the 3D reconstruction is 0.2-0.5 mm in the plane of the sample surface and 0.1-0.5 mm (0.5-1.0 mm for fluorescence) perpendicular to the surface.
	www.risoe.dk /POL/competence/chemanal/confocal.htm (281 words)

	[No title]
		Laser (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation) is the source of illumination used due to its monochromaticity (all waves are of identical wavelengths) and coherence (the waves are in the same phase).
		Laser has the advantage that it can be tuned over a range of wavelengths, and the intensity can be controlled by amplification.
		The basic principle of LSCM is to scan a specimen with a laser and to use a pinhole to collect the reflected or fluorescent light.
	www-users.york.ac.uk /~srms500/siti.org.uk/generated/lscm.doc.htm (1758 words)

	Olympus FluoView Resource Center: Theory of Confocal Microscopy (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-17)
		aser scanning confocal microscopy represents one of the most significant advances in optical microscopy ever developed, primarily because the technique enables visualization deep within both living and fixed cells and tissues and affords the ability to collect sharply defined optical sections from which three-dimensional renderings can be created.
		Recommended Books on Confocal Microscopy - A surprisingly limited number of books dealing with various aspects of laser scanning and spinning disk confocal microscopy and related techniques are currently available from the booksellers.
		Basic Concepts in Laser Scanning Confocal Microscopy (PDF; 2.8 Mb) - Laser scanning confocal microscopy has become an invaluable tool for a wide range of investigations in the biological and medical sciences for imaging thin optical sections in living and fixed specimens ranging in thickness up to 100 micrometers.
	www.olympusfluoview.com /theory/index.html (2215 words)

	The Confocal Microscopy and Cell Culture Facility (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-17)
		Confocal microscopy is based on the principle that out-of-focus information can be rejected by the presence of a pinhole in front of the detector.
		Confocal laser-scanning microscopy (CLSM) is a rapidly advancing technique used to produce crisp and precise images of thick specimens in fluorescent and reflective light modes by rejection of out-of-focus light via a confocal pinhole.
		The height of the sample is measured by continuously scanning the sample and recording the deflection of the cantilever.
	www.rci.rutgers.edu /~rsharma1/princs.html (556 words)

	Application of Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy in Characterization of Chemical Enhancers in Drug-in-Adhesive ...
		Using confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM), it is possible with a high degree of precision to locate and study transport phenomena of fluorescent chemical substances in different materials.
		The purpose of this study was to evaluate whether CLSM could be used to examine the embedment and release kinetic of the enhancer lauric acid from TDDSs consisting of 3 different types of adhesive polymers: an acrylic, a polyisobutylene, and a silicone.
		The CLSM used was a Zeiss LSM 510 with motorized Axiovert 100 microscope (Carl Zeiss, Jena Germany).
	www.aapspharmsci.org /view.asp?art=ps040103 (3503 words)

	Confocal Microscopy (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-17)
		Confocal microscopes use specific wavelengths of light to excite fluorescent molecules within a sample.
		The power of confocal microscopy lies in the instrument's ability to obtain clear optical sections from thick specimens.
		A less traditional use for confocal microscopes, but one that is gaining popularity, is the imaging of non-transparent surfaces and objects.
	research.amnh.org /mif/confocal/confocal.html (442 words)

	Brain Research Institute
		Two photon or multiphoton laser-scanning microscopy is the latest technique to be introduced commercially in the filed of fluorescence laser scanning microscopy.
		Thus, the design of the two-photon laser scanning microscope makes it inherently insensitive to the effects of light scattering in thick slices, which are normally quite detrimental to the contrast of the final images.
		The microscope is fully equipped for differential interference microscopy used by several users in the infra-red range to visualize their cells, and choose cells for electrical and optical recording.
	www.bri.ucla.edu /bri_research/microscopy_photon_multiphoton_lsm.asp (880 words)

	Confocal microscopy - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		Confocal microscopy is an imaging technique used to increase micrograph contrast and/or to reconstruct three-dimensional images by using a spatial pinhole to eliminate out-of-focus light or flare in specimens that are thicker than the focal plane.
		The principle of confocal imaging was patented by Marvin Minsky in 1961.
		Generally speaking, confocal laser scanning microscopy yields better image quality but the imaging frame rate is very slow (less than 3 frames/second); spinning-disk confocal microscopes can achieve video rate imaging---desired for dynamic observations.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Confocal_microscopy (277 words)

	The Latest In Confocal Scanning Laser Microscopy Equipment - Biocompare Technology Spotlight
		But when the technique of confocal microscopy was first developed, it wasn’t possible to take images at all.
		Confocal microscopy works by illuminating a single point in a specimen and filtering out the incidental light from around this point.
		The UltraVIEW LCI is an innovative multi-point confocal laser scanning microscopy system that overcomes limitations of conventional laser scanning confocal microscopy systems resulting from sample sensitivity to laser light.
	www.biocompare.com /spotlight.asp?id=118 (510 words)

	Confocal Microscopy (Cellular Imaging Core, SWEHSC)
		Marvin Minsky's recollections on the invention and patenting of the principles of the confocal microscope.
		This type of confocal is much better at high-speed imaging, with the limitation being that the disk's pinholes are not adjustable, so optimum confocal images can only be acquired with a specific objective lens.
		Many confocal microscopes are able to image cells and tissues with DIC as a compliment to the fluorescence imaging.
	swehsc.pharmacy.arizona.edu /exppath/micro/confocal.html (962 words)

	Laser Scanning Microscopy and Scanning Near-Field Optical Microscopy (SNOM) - Overview and History
		For optical microscopy, typically operating at a wavelength of 500 nm (the visible spectrum ranges from 400 nm to 700 nm), the lateral resolution is thus limited to about 250 nm.
		In Laser Scanning Confocal Microscopy, both the sample illumination and the light collection are focused onto the same spot on the surface of the sample (or even inside the sample).
		As opposed to conventional as well as to laser scanning microscopy, which are far-field microscopies, SNOM requires the close proximity between probe and sample.
	www.azonano.com /details.asp?ArticleID=1241 (744 words)

	Cellscience - Confocal Principles (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-17)
		Confocal Microscopy is an optical sectioning technique producing images free from out-of-focus blur.
		It is a light microscopy technique and commonly employs visible wavelength lasers as light sources and confocal apertures or 'pinholes' in the detection path.
		The freedom to increase the size of the confocal aperture can also be important when imaging very faint fluorescence where it allows a trade off between optical section quality and image brightness.
	microscopy.bio-rad.com /principles/confocal.htm (315 words)

	WEHI - Cytometry Lab - ConfocalHome (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-17)
		The Cytometry laboratory at the WEHI is equipped with a Confocal Laser Scanning Microscope (CLSM).
		Confocal microscopy is a relatively new technique that permits us to obtain high-resolution images of very thin sections of a specimen.
		Confocal Microscopy training sessions are available for new users by appointment.
	www.wehi.edu.au /cytometry/confocalHome.html (121 words)

	Quantification of Protein A—Gold Staining for Peroxisomal Enzymes by Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy -- Ogiwara et ...
		Values measured in peroxisomes by CLSM (A) and the labeling densities of peroxisomes by immunoelectron microscopy (B) and of normal (NL) and DOP-treated (DOP) hepatic peroxisomes stained for catalase (CAT) (40 µg/ml of IgG) and enoyl-CoA hydratase/3-hydroxy acyl-CoA dehydrogenase (PH) (40 µg/ml of IgG) by the protein A–gold technique.
		Robinson JM, Batten BE (1989) Detection of diaminobenzidine reactions using scanning laser confocal reflectance microscopy.
		Verschure PJ, van Marle J, Joosten LAB, van den Berg WB (1994) Localization and quantification of the insulin-like growth factor-1 receptor in mouse articular cartilage by confocal laser scanning microscopy.
	www.jhc.org /cgi/content/full/47/10/1343 (3335 words)

	fig004mhu: Confocal laser scanning microscopy of fixed and stained cells (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-17)
		Confocal laser scanning microscopy of fixed and stained cells.
		Three-dimensional and volumetric data have been derived from a series of confocal laser scanning microscope images that were produced using a Leica TCS-NT system.
		Subsequently, a resorption pit is formed beneath the osteoclast, as released bone matrix is transported through the cell before being expelled into the extracellular space (Refs 61, 62).
	www-ermm.cbcu.cam.ac.uk /00001617h.htm (489 words)

	Tomography of Cells by Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy and Computer-assisted Three-dimensional Image Reconstruction: ...
		Tomography of Cells by Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy and Computer-assisted Three-dimensional Image Reconstruction: Localization of Cathepsin B in Tumor Cells Penetrating Collagen Gels In Vitro -- Strohmaier et al.
		Carlsson K. (1991) The influence of specimen refraction index, detector signal integration and non uniform scan speed on the imaging properties in confocal microscopy.
		Strohmaier A-R, Spring H, Spiess E (1996) Three-dimensional analysis of the substrate-dependent invasive behavior of a human lung tumor cell line with a confocal laser scanning microscope.
	www.jhc.org /cgi/content/full/45/7/975 (4630 words)

	Automated Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy and Semiautomated Image Processing for Analysis of Biofilms -- Kuehn et ...
		The main components are the nutrient reservoir and the flow cell under a Zeiss confocal laser scanning microscope coupled to a Leica QUANTIMET image analysis computer.
		GFP fluorescence was observed with a 488-nm Ar laser.
		Computer-enhanced darkfield microscopy for the quantitative analysis of bacterial growth and behavior on surfaces.
	aem.asm.org /cgi/content/full/64/11/4115 (5984 words)

	Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy of Hamster Cerebellum Using FM4-64 as Intracellular (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-17)
		Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy of Hamster Cerebellum Using FM4-64 as Intracellular Staining
		Slabs of hamster cerebellum, 1–2 mm thick, were incubated in 10, 30, and 100 µm solutions of FM4-64 in sodium phosphate buffer and observed in a slow scan confocal laser scanning microscope.
		Mossy and climbing fibers were traced in the cerebellar white and gray substances.They exhibited a high fluorescence signal at the level of the myelin sheath.
	www.scanning.org /scanabstracts/SCANNING99/21015.shtml (267 words)

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