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	Nikon MicroscopyU: Introduction to Confocal Microscopy
		Confocal microscopy offers several advantages over conventional optical microscopy, including controllable depth of field, the elimination of image degrading out-of-focus information, and the ability to collect serial optical sections from thick specimens.
		The key to the confocal approach is the use of spatial filtering to eliminate out-of-focus light or flare in specimens that are thicker than the plane of focus.
		There has been a tremendous explosion in the popularity of confocal microscopy in recent years, due in part to the relative ease with which extremely high-quality images can be obtained from specimens prepared for conventional optical microscopy, and in its great number of applications in many areas of current research interest.
	www.microscopyu.com /articles/confocal (1426 words)

	Olympus FluoView Resource Center: Introduction to Confocal Microscopy
		Confocal microscopy provides only a marginal improvement in both axial (z; along the optical axis) and lateral (x and y; in the specimen plane) optical resolution, but is able to exclude secondary fluorescence in areas removed from the focal plane from resulting images.
		In epi-illumination scanning confocal microscopy, the laser light source and photomultiplier detectors are both separated from the specimen by the objective, which functions as a well-corrected condenser and objective combination.
		In laser scanning confocal microscopy, the image of an extended specimen is generated by scanning the focused beam across a defined area in a raster pattern controlled by two high-speed oscillating mirrors driven by galvanometer motors.
	www.olympusconfocal.com /theory/confocalintro.html (4303 words)

	Olympus FluoView Resource Center: Theory of Confocal Microscopy
		Fluorophores for Confocal Microscopy - Biological laser scanning confocal microscopy relies heavily on fluorescence as an imaging mode, primarily due to the high degree of sensitivity afforded by the technique coupled with the ability to specifically target structural components and dynamic processes in chemically fixed as well as living cells and tissues.
		Spectral Bleed-Through Artifacts in Confocal Microscopy - The spectral bleed-through of fluorescence emission (often termed crossover or crosstalk), which occurs due to the very broad bandwidths and asymmetrical spectral profiles exhibited by many of the common fluorophores, is a fundamental problem that must be addressed in both widefield and laser scanning confocal fluorescence microscopy.
		In confocal microscopy, fluorescence emission is directed through a pinhole aperture positioned near the image plane to exclude light from fluorescent structures located away from the objective focal plane, thus reducing the amount of light available for image formation.
	www.olympusfluoview.com /theory/index.html (2215 words)

	Confocal Imaging
		n a confocal imaging system a single point of excitation light (or sometimes a group of points or a slit) is scanned across the specimen (see animation 1).
		Confocal imaging can offer another advantage in favorable situations (small pinhole size, bright specimen): the resolution that is obtained can be better by a factor of up to 1.4 than the resolution obtained with the microscope operated conventionally.
		Multiple-beam confocal microscopes have a higher speed potential than point-scanners because their inherent parallelism avoids fluorophore saturation enabling higher levels of excitation to be used.
	www.loci.wisc.edu /confocal/confocal.html (1192 words)

	Confocal Microscopy & Laser Diode Technology
		Confocal microscopy is an optical sectioning technique that employs spatial filtering to produce images that are free from out-of-focus blur.
		Confocal microscopy has gained in popularity in recent years, due in large part to how easy it is to obtain high quality images from samples prepared for conventional optical microscopy.
		In conventional optical microscopy, the sample is completely illuminated by the excited light, so all of the sample is fluorescing at the same time, with the highest intensity of the light at the focal point of the lens.
	www.powertechnology.com /confocalmicroscopy.asp (342 words)

	Olympus Microscopy Resource Center: Specialized Microscopy Techniques - Confocal Microscopy
		Laser scanning confocal microscopy represents one of the most significant advances in optical microscopy ever developed, primarily because the technique enables visualization deep within both living and fixed cells and tissues and affords the ability to collect sharply defined optical sections from which three-dimensional renderings can be created.
		Applications in Confocal Microscopy - The broad range of applications available to laser scanning confocal microscopy includes a wide variety of studies in neuroanatomy and neurophysiology, as well as morphological studies of a wide spectrum of cells and tissues.
		In contrast, the excitation region of a laser scanning confocal microscope is similar to that of a widefield microscope.
	www.olympusmicro.com /primer/techniques/confocal/index.html (2577 words)

	Confocal
		In 1986-87, a confocal microscope with the capabilities of producing very useful images could be built by combining the technologies of the laser, the computer, and microelectronics.
		The confocal microscope eliminates this out-of-focus information by means of a confocal "pinhole" situated in front of the image plane which acts as a spatial filter and allows only the in-focus portion of the light to be imaged.
		The confocal microscope at the Institute is a Carl Zeiss LSM 310 Laser Scanning Confocal Microscope.
	www.gonda.ucla.edu /bri_core/confocal.htm (1160 words)

	LSU Eye Center: Research - Ocular Structures and Image Analysis - Confocal Microscopy Facility
		The unique properties of the confocal microscope stem from its ability to focus the illuminating light and the focal plane of the microscope objective on precisely the same point.
		This is accomplished by the distinctive light path employed in the confocal microscope with its Nipkow disc.
		The confocal microscopes that we constructed utilize a Nipkow disc with 40 micron pores, which allows a 2-dimensional resolution of 1.5 to 2 microns and a vertical resolution of 12 microns.
	www.lsu-eye.lsuhsc.edu /Research/confocalmicroscopy.htm (449 words)

	Confocal Scanning Microscopy
		Confocal Microscopy also is advantageous because it allows the user to view different parts of the specimen when rotating the focus knob without loosing view of the specimen.
		Also another use of confocal microscopy is viewing a fixed tissue that has been stained with a flourescently labeled antibody because immunoflourescence stains are highly sensitive because antigen expressing cells can be readily detected against a dark non-fluorescent background (Epstein, 366).
		According to the Leica Company the basic principle of the confocal microscope is to suppress all images out of focus by obtaining an arrangement of diagrams which at optically conjugated points of the path of rays act as a point source and as a point detector.
	www.samford.edu /~gekeller/stephens.html (660 words)

	The Science Creative Quarterly » CONFOCAL MICROSCOPY - A VISUAL SLICE OF THE CELLULAR WORLD
		In confocal microscopy, as in conventional microscopy, it is necessary for the tissue specimen of interest to demonstrate some form of optical contrast between different areas of the sample for visualization [1-3].
		In a confocal microscope, the detector must be the same distance as the light source from the illuminated portion of the sample to effectively block out-of-focus light.
		Confocal microscopy is also used to analyze subcellular functions, such as pH gradients and membrane potentials, using specific fluorescent dyes and to measure intracellular changes in ion concentrations of molecules such as calcium, sodium, magnesium, zinc and potassium.
	www.scq.ubc.ca /?p=278 (1792 words)

	Confocal laser scanning microscopy - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		The principle for this special kind of microscopy was developed by Marvin Minsky in 1953, but it took another thirty years and the development of lasers for confocal microscopy to become a standard technique toward the end of the 1980s.
		In a laser scanning confocal microscope a laser beam passes a light source aperture and then is focused by an objective lens into a small (ideally diffraction-limited) focal volume within a fluorescent specimen.
		It is used for localising and identifying presence of filamentary fungal elements in the corneal stroma in cases of keratomycosis, enabling rapid diagnosis and thereby early institution of definitive therapy.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Confocal_laser_scanning_microscopy (1128 words)

	Confocal Microscopy Course
		Confocal Light Microscopy: Fundamentals and Biological Applications is an advanced course for graduate students and lab technicians in biology, biophysics and (bio)medicine.
		Since its introduction in the late seventies, the confocal light microscope has advanced rapidly from a complex instrument that could be used by specialists only, to a commercial product, which is part of the standard repertoire of modern biological research.
		The course is divided equally between lectures on the principles of confocal imaging and practicals in confocal microscopy, optical performance testing and image analysis and processing.
	wwwmc.bio.uva.nl /html/PhDcourses/PhDconfocal.html (461 words)

	Multi-Photon Excitation Flourescence Microscopy
		Multiple-photon excitation fluorescence microscopy is a technique that uses non-linear optical effects to achieve optical sectioning.
		When images of optical sections that are deep within a light-scattering sample are obtained using confocal microscopy, the fluorescence signal is attenuated by light scatter.
		Confocal imaging therefore suffers a deterioration in signal-to-background when obtaining images from deep within a sample.
	www.loci.wisc.edu /multiphoton/mp.html (731 words)

	Confocal microscopy - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		Confocal microscopy is an imaging technique used to increase micrograph contrast and/or to reconstruct three-dimensional images by using a spatial pinhole to eliminate out-of-focus light or flare in specimens that are thicker than the focal plane.
		The principle of confocal imaging was patented by Marvin Minsky in 1961.
		Generally speaking, confocal laser scanning microscopy yields better image quality but the imaging frame rate is very slow (less than 3 frames/second); spinning-disk confocal microscopes can achieve video rate imaging---desired for dynamic observations.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Confocal_microscopy (290 words)

	How does a confocal microscope work?
		This particular style of fluorescence microscopy is known as epi-fluorescence, and uses the microscope objective to illuminate the sample (rather than illuminating the sample from the other side, which would be trans-fluorescence).
		The confocal also includes a very large box containing electronics, which is not shown in the photographs; there is also a laser, and an SGI computer.
		The confocal microscope was invented by Marvin Minsky, who has written a nice summary about this on the web.
	www.physics.emory.edu /~weeks/confocal (1619 words)

	Confocal Microscopy
		Confocal microscopes use specific wavelengths of light to excite fluorescent molecules within a sample.
		The power of confocal microscopy lies in the instrument's ability to obtain clear optical sections from thick specimens.
		A less traditional use for confocal microscopes, but one that is gaining popularity, is the imaging of non-transparent surfaces and objects.
	research.amnh.org /mif/confocal/confocal.html (442 words)

	Nikon MicroscopyU: Virtual Microscopy - Laser Scanning Confocal Microscopy
		Laser scanning confocal microscopes employ a pair of pinhole apertures to limit the specimen focal plane to a confined volume approximately a micron in size.
		To increase the photomultiplier gain in the confocal portion of the tutorial, translate the PMT Red Gain and PMT Green Gain sliders by moving one or both bars with the mouse cursor.
		Confocal microscopy, multiphoton excitation, and deconvolution techniques enable observation of the details within thick specimens by a process known as optical sectioning, without the artifacts that accompany specimen preparation by physical sectioning.
	www.microscopyu.com /tutorials/java/virtual/confocal/index.html (1195 words)

	Synthetic aperture confocal imaging
		Confocal microscopy is a family of imaging techniques that employ focused patterned illumination and synchronized imaging to create cross-sectional views of 3D biological specimens.
		A third protocol that has been proposed in the microscopy literature is illumination of the scene by a sequence of three sinusoidal patterns, shifted with respect to one another by 1/3 of the pattern's wavelength [4,5].
		In this protocol a confocal image is formed by simple additions and subtractions of these three images, without the necessity of extracting specific tiles.
	graphics.stanford.edu /papers/confocal (1219 words)

	Confocal » Confocal Microscopy Center » Laboratory of Signal Transduction » NIEHS (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-09-07)
		A confocal microscope significantly improves resolution over a conventional microscope by removing out-of-focus blur from the image as it is formed.
		The only requirement to a microscope being "confocal" is that, in the image plane, there is an aperture-- or a grid of apertures placed apart from each other-- that serves to remove the out-of-focus light coming from the sample.
		Confocal microscopes, as they are currently implemented, are a type of light microscope.
	dir.niehs.nih.gov /cmc/confocal.htm (328 words)

	Imaging and Molecular CoreUM/Sylvester, University of Miami School of Medicine
		Before the advent of confocal microscopy, images often appeared blurry to the eye and proved technically challenging or impossible to capture on film because light from above and below the focal plane overwhelmed the image.
		The key function of the Confocal Laser Scanning Microscope or CLSM is the removal of out-of-focus light from the image plane by insertion of a pinhole or slit in the light path.
		This core also has the ability to perform non-laser based, real-time confocal microscopy, which is a distinct advantage when analyzing live cells; the real-time capability allows capturing images at the standard video rate of 30 frames per second.
	www.sylvester.org /health_pro/shared_resources/imaging.asp (1342 words)

	LSU Eye Center: Current Research - Confocal Microscopy
		Roger Beuerman is utilizing confocal microscopy technology to study the structural changes of the lamina cribrosa of cow eyes under elevated pressure and developing techniques to analyze and quantify those changes.
		Bahram Khoobehi is developing multispectral imaging of the cornea using confocal microscopy.
		Arto Palkama is using real-time confocal microscopy of rabbit eyes to directly monitor aqueous humor dynamics in the living eye.
	www.lsu-eye.lsuhsc.edu /Research/confocal.htm (154 words)

	OWU Confocal Microscope
		Confocal microscopy is revolutionizing many areas of study in biology.
		Confocal microscopy also provides other advantages over transmitted and epifluorescence microscopy, including very high resolution 3D analysis of samples, and high-resolution time-lapse observations.
		To find out more about confocal microscopy, how it works, and how we're using it at Ohio Wesleyan University, follow the links on the left.
	confocal.owu.edu (138 words)

	Olympus Microscopy Resource Center: General Web Resources - Confocal Microscopy
		Confocal Imaging - Developed by the Laboratory for Optical and Computational Instrumentation at the University of Wisconsin, this website provides an introduction to confocal imaging and a variety of related topics.
		Confocal Microscopy - Sponsored by the Experimental Pathology Core at the University of Arizona Center for Toxicology, this website offers links to general and historical aspects of confocal microscopy.
		Scanning Laser Microscopy Laboratory (University of Waterloo) - Sponsored by the Physics Department at the University of Waterloo in Ontario, this website presents a brief introduction to the basics of scanning confocal microscopy.
	www.olympusmicro.com /primer/resources/confocal.html (500 words)

	Confocal Microscopy.org - Confocal Microscopy Protocols, Troubleshooting and Theory
		Confocal microscopy and immunofluorescence protocols, optimization methods and techniques - is there an immunofluorescence or confocal microscopy protocol you want to share?
		For the research scientist, there are several advantages to using a confocal microscope to obtain data compared with conventional optical microscopy.
		Confocal microscopy.org offers protocols, buffers, troubleshooting and other confocal microscopy resources.
	www.confocal-microscopy.org (181 words)

	Sonoma State Confocal Microscope Remote Access Page (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-09-07)
		This site is dedicated to extending the technology of confocal microscopy to the students of Sonoma State University and to the people of the surrounding community.
		Confocal microscopy allows one to focus on a particular plane of a specimen without interference from fluorescence in other planes.
		Both fluorescent and confocal microscopy use fluorescently tagged probes to look at particular features of both fixed and living cells and tissues.
	www.sonoma.edu /biology/confocal/ssuconfocalremoteaccess.htm (367 words)

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