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Topic: Consequences of the Rwandan Genocide

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	Ten Years Later (HRW Report - Leave None to Tell the Story: Genocide in Rwanda, March 1999)
		The Rwandan genocide of 1994 was one of the defining events of the twentieth century.
		Yet the consequences of this genocide, enormous as they are for Rwandans, do not stop at the border of that one small country but spill onto the people of neighboring countries and far beyond.
		Rwandan authorities continued to stress this supposed security threat from the other side of the border long after the numbers and resources of the former Rwandan army and militia had diminished and their members were widely scattered.
	www.hrw.org /reports/1999/rwanda/10years.htm (2458 words)

	Encyclopedia: Consequences of the Rwandan Genocide (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-11)
		Analysis of the causes of the Rwandan Genocide
		The skulls of victims show gashes and signs of violence The Rwandan Genocide was the slaughter of an estimated 800,000 Tutsis and moderate Hutus by a group of Hutu extremists known as Interahamwe during a period of 100 days in 1994.
		Main article: Gacaca court Gacaca courts are a new form of community justice that have been used in Rwanda in the wake of the Rwandan Genocide.
	www.nationmaster.com /encyclopedia/Consequences-of-the-Rwandan-Genocide (1039 words)

	Genocide:Meaning and Definition
		Genocide is generally considered one of the worst moral crimes a government (meaning any ruling authority, including that of a guerrilla group, a quasi state, a Soviet, a terrorist organization, or an occupation authority) can commit against its citizens or those it controls.
		Regardless of war or peace, the motive for genocide may be to deal with a perceived threat to the government or its policies, to destroy those one hates or envies, to pursue the ideological transformation of society, to purify society, or to achieve economic or material gain.
		"Genocide in the generic sense is the mass killing of substantial numbers of human beings, when not in the course of military forces of an avowed enemy, under conditions of the essential defenselessness and helplessness of the victims." (Israel W. Charny).
	www.hawaii.edu /powerkills/GENOCIDE.ENCY.HTM (6112 words)

	Genocide
		Genocide is generally defined as the intentional extermination of a specific ethnic, racial, or religious group.
		[1] Ethnic cleansing is a euphemism for genocide.
		Various aspects of genocide and mass killing are considered, including their starting points (such as difficult life conditions and group conflict), cultural characteristics, psychological and social processes (such as destructive ideologies), the evolution of increasing violence and its effect on perpetrators and bystanders, and the roles of leaders and of internal and external bystanders.
	www.beyondintractability.org /essay/war_crimes_genocide/?nid=1054 (3804 words)

	Gendercide Watch - What is gendercide?
		The term also calls attention to the fact that gender roles have often had lethal consequences, and that these are in important respects analogous to the lethal consequences of racial, religious, and class prejudice.
		Nor do we suggest that the gender dimension of the Jewish holocaust, or the Armenian or Rwandan genocides, is the dominant or most important dimension of these horrific events, which swept up all sectors of the targeted populations.
		But policymakers, humanitarian workers, and scholars of genocide have worked to identify reliable indicators of the onset of genocide, as a means of intervening promptly and effectively to suppress it.
	www.gendercide.org /what_is_gendercide.html (1277 words)

	THE EIGHT STAGES OF GENOCIDE
		Having studied the genocidal process and the history of genocidal massacres in Rwanda, I recognized the danger of the ethnic ID cards during my first stay in Rwanda in 1988, when I did a study of judicial administration for the Rwandan Ministry of Justice.
		Joan Donoghue of the Legal Advisors Office gave her opinion that the word genocide should be avoided, because she questioned whether the killings possessed the requisite "intent" and because use of the G-word, “genocide,” would obligate the U.S. to take action to stop it.
		When the genocide began, policy makers in Washington and at the U.N. believed that UNAMIR forces lacked the strength to arrest the spread of the conflagration, and they refused to consider sending in their own troops.
	www.genocidewatch.org /rwandangenocideprevention.htm (7951 words)

	Bystanders to Genocide
		So far people have explained the U.S. failure to respond to the Rwandan genocide by claiming that the United States didn't know what was happening, that it knew but didn't care, or that regardless of what it knew there was nothing useful to be done.
		In the first three weeks of the genocide the most influential American policymakers portrayed (and, they insist, perceived) the deaths not as atrocities or the components and symptoms of genocide but as wartime "casualties"—the deaths of combatants or those caught between them in a civil war.
		In order not to appreciate that genocide or something close to it was under way, U.S. officials had to ignore public reports and internal intelligence and debate.
	www.theatlantic.com /doc/200109/power-genocide (1348 words)

	The Politics of Genocide
		In respect to the Rwandan revolution of 1959, Tutsis say that external actors (Belgian authorities and the Catholic Church) switched support from the Tutsis to the Hutus and were responsible for the reversal of power relations and subsequent political violence.
		It is clear that one of the main drives behind the escalation of ethnic hatred to the level of genocide is the control of the media.
		The Rwandan legal system was held hostage by the racist regime and the president named his cronies as judges and magistrates.
	www.providence.edu /polisci/students/genocide/ThePoliticsofGenocide.htm (2126 words)

	Institute for Media, Peace & Security - Bibliography
		Campbell, Kenneth J., Genocide and the Global Village, Macmillan, Basinstoke, 1999.
		Rotberg, R.I and Weiss Th.G., From Massacres to Genocide: The Media, Public Policy, and Humanitarian Crises, The Brookings Institution, Washington, DC, 1996, 203 pp.
		Destexhe, Alain, Rwanda and Genocide in the Twentieth Century, New York University Press, New York, 1995.
	www.mediapeace.org /bibliography.cfm (3354 words)

	Rwanda: Genocide and U.S. Policy, 2
		Rwandan Hutu civilians who do not necessarily support the genocidaires, are forced to give them food, and, all too often, are targets of reprisals by Rwandan government forces.
		Chairman, I would conclude by noting that the West's refusal to suppress the genocide in Rwanda was extraordinarily costly in three ways: first and foremost, it was costly in the terrible loss of hundreds of thousands of Tutsi Rwandan men, women, and children and of the courageous Hutu civilians who sheltered them.
		A second casualty of the genocide was the image and thus the potential effectiveness of the United Nations and its various organizations.
	www.africaaction.org /docs98/rwan9805.2.htm (2545 words)

	Sexual Violence and Genocide Against Tutsi Women
		Genocide, however, is not a sudden event; it is the result of complex factors fueled by history, psychology, and sociology, culminating in a quest for power.
		The participation of the broader population was a critical aspect of the Rwandan genocide; co-workers killed co-workers, neighbors killed neighbors, friends killed friends, husbands killed wives.
		These figures, however, were likely higher by the start of the genocide since "in some areas, the government distributed radios free to local authorities before the genocide and they may have done so after the killing began as well." People without radios listened to them at bars or obtained information from their neighbors.
	academic.udayton.edu /race/06hrights/GeoRegions/Africa/Rwanda01.htm (3709 words)

	Aug. 16-31, 2005 Global News Monitor - Prevent Genocide International
		Genocide in Texas Posted: August 24, 2004 - 10:41am EST by: Brenda Norrell / Southwest Staff Reporter / Indian Country Today REDLAND, Texas - It is a history that the United States buried, along with the Indian women and children.
		Of course, the genocide was no battle; but it did take place during a war, with the Hutu-dominated Rwandan authorities insisting that all Tutsi -- members of the same ethnic group as the guerrilla force then attacking the government in Kigali -- were the enemy.
		The Rwandan tragedy, therefore, was not informed by some general creed about genocide, but by a particular, consciously directed and sectarian ideology espoused by the Parmehutu party to marginalize and eliminate.
	www.preventgenocide.org /news-monitor/2005aug2.htm (17862 words)

	Group Classification on National ID Cards - Jim Fussell - 15 Nov 2001
		Genocidal hate speech: emphasizing a threat from all members of the group (including children and elderly) and calling for the elimination or destruction of the group.
		Most writers on the 1994 Rwandan genocide note the introduction of group classification on ID cards by the Belgian colonial government in 1933, an action most significant because it introduced a rigid racial concept of group identity where it had not previously existed.
		The Rwandan genocide was not the indiscriminate or wanton slaughter as it is was sometimes portrayed.
	www.preventgenocide.org /prevent/removing-facilitating-factors/IDcards (5807 words)

	Documentary, God Sleeps in Rwanda, Short Film - Venice, California.
		Uncovering amazing stories of hope in the aftermath of the Rwandan genocide, Academy Award-Nominee GOD SLEEPS IN RWANDA captures the spirit of five courageous women as they rebuild their lives, redefine women’s roles in Rwandan society and bring hope to a wounded nation.
		The 1994 Rwandan Genocide left the country nearly 70 percent female, handing Rwanda’s women an extraordinary burden and an unprecedented opportunity.
		Heart-wrenching and inspiring, this powerful film is a brutal reminder of the consequences of the Rwandan tragedy, and a tribute to the strength and spirit of those who are moving forth.
	www.godsleepsinrwanda.com /971179.html (124 words)

	AFROL Rwanda Background - The Cross and the Genocide
		A genocide, that was to kill between 750,000 and one million Tutsis and moderate Hutus, was carefully planned and implemented.
		This did not mean that the church hierarchies were systematically involved in the planning of the genocide, but it indicated that the churches as organisations had not taken the responsibilities they were supposed to, due to their too close links to the government.
		The article, leaning on "anonymous sources", is one in a series of allegations against the present Rwandan President, thus chief of the Rwandan Patriotic Army (RPA) that toppled the government responsible of the genocide in 1994.
	www.afrol.com /Countries/Rwanda/backgr_cross_genocide.htm (2421 words)

	PEACE PARTY - Author's Forum
		Ward Churchill observes that Article II of the United Nation's 1948 Convention on Punishment and Prevention of the Crime of Genocide specifies five categories of activity considered genocidal—and therefore criminal under international law—when directed against an identified national, ethnical, racial, or religious group.
		The Hutu genocide plan went off without a hitch; the United States then approved a military intervention by the French government, which sent its troops to protect the mass murderers against the rebellion of the Rwandan Patriotic Front.
		Do yourself a favor and look up the date on which the United States actually ratified the 1948 Convention on Genocide (40 years after its passage at the United Nations) or the last time it refused to recognize a genocide (the 1915-1923 massacre of Armenians, the subject of a failed congressional resolution last fall).
	www.bluecorncomics.com /genocide.htm (4069 words)

	UNICEF - Rwanda - Rwanda: Ten years after the genocide
		As the world remembers the ten-year anniversary of the genocide in Rwanda, the country’s children continue to live with the devastating affects of this brutal conflict.
		When the genocide ended in 1994, 800,000 people had been murdered — 300,000 of these victims were children In addition, 95,000 children had been orphaned.
		When the genocide ended in 1994, 800,000 people had been murdered — 300,000 of these victims were children.
	www.unicef.org /infobycountry/rwanda_genocide.html (471 words)

	COULD THE RWANDAN GENOCIDE HAVE BEEN PREVENTED
		[36] Genocide and civil war are correlative, not mutually exclusive.
		[43] He concludes that although intervention during the Rwandan genocide would have been less effective than some think, saving 125,000 lives would have justified maximal intervention.
		[31] All of the American policy makers who made the decisions during the Rwandan genocide, including the decision to order withdrawal UNAMIR troops, were later promoted.
	www.genocidewatch.org /COULDTHERWANDANGENOCIDEHAVEBEENPREVENTEDbyGregoryStanton.htm (7951 words)

	rwanda.ca - Rwanda Genocide (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-11)
		KIGALI, Rwanda (AP) -- Rwanda's High Court ruled Wednesday that a genocide case against a Belgian priest could be transferred to his homeland.
		Colonel Theoneste Bagosora, the alleged "mastermind" of the 1994 genocide in Rwanda, Wednesday claimed at the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR), that in 1994, the government did not have enough forces both...
		A Rwandan general has been arrested on suspicion of playing a key role in the 1994 genocide in which more than half a...
	www.rwanda.ca /Rwanda-Genocide/all/search (364 words)

	ANC Today - Volume 3, No. 47 28 November 2003 (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-11)
		In the Conclusion he says: "When I think about the consequences of the Rwandan genocide, I think first of all of those who died an agonising death from machete wounds inside the hundreds of sweltering churches, chapels and missions where they'd gone to seek God's protection and ended instead in the arms of Lucifer.
		The report concludes that one of the major consequences of the change in the structure of the economy is that 'two economies' persist in one country.
		The consequences of this are still evident today, as countries borrow to service debt, struggle to develop and diversify their economies and meet the basic needs of their people in the face of unfavourable trade regimes, denial of market access, unaffordable drugs and medicines etc.
	www.anc.org.za /ancdocs/anctoday/2003/at47.htm (4429 words)

	Outsider (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-11)
		Only the consequences of the Rwandan genocide of 1994 have been documented.
		Up to 30 per cent of the Rwandan Batwa died or were killed between October 1993 and June 1995.
		The implications of this for the future of the Rwandan Batwa are profoundly distressing.
	www.minorityrights.org /Outsiders/outsider_article.asp?ID=19 (740 words)

	JET 14(1) - April 2005 - Bostrom - Transhumanist Thought
		He conceives of a superintelligence as an enormously powerful optimization process, and the central task is to specify the mental architecture and goal-structure of the AI in such a way that it realizes desirable outcomes.
		It is ultimately this predictable potential for genocide that makes species-altering experiments potential weapons of mass destruction, and makes the unaccountable genetic engineer a potential bioterrorist.
		Transhumanists deny, however, that this is a likely consequence of germ-line therapy to enhance health, memory, longevity, or other similar traits in humans.
	jetpress.org /volume14/bostrom.html (9763 words)

	CNN.com - Rwanda genocide conviction upheld - October 19, 2000
		THE HAGUE, Netherlands -- The man who was the prime minister of Rwanda during the country's 1994 genocide failed Thursday in his bid for a new trial.
		Kambanda, the most senior Rwandan official in U.N. custody, was the first head of government ever convicted by an international tribunal.
		He was found guilty September 4, 1998, on six counts of genocide and crimes against humanity for the murder and extermination of civilians.
	edition.cnn.com /2000/WORLD/africa/10/19/genocide.rwanda.02 (577 words)

	Genocide Intervention Network (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-11)
		Yair Auron, genocide scholar, senior lecturer at the Open University of Israel and the Kibbutzim College of Education, and author of "The Banality of Indifference: Zionism and the Armenian Genocide."
		Institute for the Study of Genocide, an independent nonprofit organization that exists to promote and disseminate scholarship and policy analyses on the causes, consequences, and prevention of genocide.
		Edmond J. Keller, professor of political science, Director of the African department of the UCLA Globalization Research Center and former Director of the University of California-Los Angeles African Studies Center (1992–2001).
	www.genocideinterventionfund.org /about/sponsors.php (1050 words)

	Rwandan president calls for genocide-preventing mechanism
		Rwandan President Paul Kagame Sunday urged the international community to establish an effective mechanism to prevent reoccurrence of horrible killings like the 1994 genocide in Rwanda.
		The conference is part of the commemoration week launched by the Rwandan government to commemorate those dead in the genocide 10 years ago.
		The genocide destroyed so many Rwandan families and threw the survivors into sadness, loneliness and poverty, Kagame said, adding that the 1994 tragedy is a failure of the international community.
	english.peopledaily.com.cn /200404/05/eng20040405_139445.shtml (614 words)

	Open Directory - Regional: Africa: Rwanda: Society and Culture: History: Genocide (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-11)
		Revisionists of the Rwandan Genocide - Bibliography of revisionist literature denying the truth of the rwandan genocide.
		Lasting Wounds: Consequences of Genocide and War for Rwanda's Children - Rwandan children still suffer the consequences of the 1994 genocide and the war that preceded and followed it.
		The Atlantic - Bystanders to Genocide - Interviews with scores of participants in the decision-making process, together with analysis of newly declassified documents.
	dmoz.org /Regional/Africa/Rwanda/Society_and_Culture/History/Genocide (594 words)

	Committee on Conscience \| Alert \| Rwanda \| Overview
		The Committee on Conscience continues to highlight the Rwandan genocide because of the:
		The genocide ended in July 1994, when the Rwandan Patriotic Front, a Tutsi-led rebel force, pushed the extremists and their genocidal interim government out of the country.
		Some 2 million had fled to other countries and as many as 2 million people were internally displaced.” The consequences of the genocide continue to be felt.
	www.ushmm.org /conscience/alert/rwanda (234 words)

	Rwanda: An HIV Survivor's Story - Newsweek Health - MSNBC.com
		Twelve years after Rwanda's genocide claimed nearly a million lives, women who were raped are suffering new consequences.
		Eventually, the RPF [Rwandan Patriotic Front] rebels arrested the militiamen and took us to a center for displaced people.
		She treated me as a sister for three years, but she died in 1999, and I went back to roaming until another old woman encouraged me. She told me about the Survivors' Fund, which helped me finish high school and attend a training college for social work.
	www.msnbc.msn.com /id/12666384/site/newsweek (1201 words)

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