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Topic: Consonant gradation

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	Consonant gradation - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		Consonant gradation is a type of consonant mutation, in which consonants alternate between various "grades".
		Consonant gradation in some of these languages is not (or no longer) purely phonological, although this may be surmised for various reconstructions of Proto-Finnic.
		Some of the problems with viewing consonant gradation as purely an issue of syllable structure (at least with the case of Finnish) is that the language has undergone various phonetic changes that mean that not all closed syllables exhibit a weak grade, and not all open syllables exhibit a strong grade.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Consonant_gradation (1754 words)

	Consonant mutation - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		Consonant mutation is the phenomenon in which a consonant in a word is changed according to its morphological and/or syntactic environment.
		The active form of a multisyllabic verb with an initial stop consonant or fricative consonant is formed by prefixing the verb stem with meN-, in which N stands for a nasal consonant sharing the place of articulation as the initial consonant.
		Initial consonant mutation must not be confused with sandhi, which can refer to word-initial alternations triggered by their phonological environment, unlike mutations, which are triggered by their morphosyntactic environment.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Consonant_mutation (1228 words)

	Lenition - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		Essentially, consonants may be lost from words, and as they are, they may pass through several stages; all the steps along the way are considered lenition.
		Synchronical lenition happens in the Celtic languages, where it is conditioned by grammatical rules (for example, in Scottish Gaelic the initial consonant of a noun is lenited by the masculine 3rd person possessive eg 'màthair' "mother" - 'a mhàthair' "his mother" /m/→/v/, but not the feminine possessive, 'a màthair' "her mother").
		However, since few typesetters had the requisite slug, their convention has been to suffix the letter "h" to the consonant, to signify that it is lenited.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Lenition (751 words)

	Gemination - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		In phonetics, gemination is when a spoken consonant is "doubled", so that it is pronounced for an audibly longer period of time than a "single" consonant.
		In written language, gemination is often indicated by writing a consonant twice ("ss", "kk", "pp", and so forth), but can also be indicated with a special symbol, such as the shadda in Arabic, or small tsu in Japanese.
		However, consonants in English are often doubled in writing to indicate that the preceding vowel is 'short', as in "tapping" (from "tap"), which is distinct from "taping" (from "tape").
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Geminate (680 words)

	NationMaster - Encyclopedia: Lenition (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-03)
		An affricate is a consonant that begins like a stop (most often an alveovelar, such as [t] or [d]) and that doesnt have a release of its own, but opens directly into a fricative (or, in one language, into a trill).
		A voiced consonant is a sound made as the vocal cords vibrate, as opposed to a voiceless consonant, where the vocal cords are relaxed.
		Initial consonant mutation is the phenomenon in which the first consonant of a word is changed according to a certain grammatical environment.
	www.nationmaster.com /encyclopedia/Lenition (1701 words)

	Consonant gradation: Facts and details from Encyclopedia Topic (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-03)
		Consonant gradation is a linguistic term for the changing of consonants.
		Finnish is the language spoken by the majority of the population in finland (92%) and by ethnic finns outside finland....
		Consonant gradation is used to maintain vocal harmony in the language.
	www.absoluteastronomy.com /encyclopedia/c/co/consonant_gradation.htm (208 words)

	consonant (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-03)
		Consonant - A consonant is a sound in spoken language that is characterized by a constriction or closure at one or...
		Pharyngeal consonant - A pharyngeal consonant is a type of consonant which is articulated with the root of the tongue against the pharynx.
		Voiceless consonant - In phonetics, a voiceless consonant is a consonant that doesn't have voicing.
	www.serebella.com /search/topic-consonant.html (728 words)

	Finnish language - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		One phoneme is the chroneme, such that Finnish appears to have long and short vowels and consonants; thus, long vowels behave as vowels followed by a consonant, not as lengthened vowels.
		Consonant gradation is a lenition process for P, T and K, with the oblique stem "weakened" from the nominative stem.
		Some consonants (v, j, d) and all consonants occurring in (always medial) clusters do not have distinctive length, and consequently, their allophonic variation is not indicated in spelling, e.g.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Finnish_(language) (5810 words)

	Finnish Grammar - Genitive Stem
		The genitive stem of these words is similar to the nominative stem, except for that the consonant gradation is applied to appropriate words.
		The consonant gradation is not applied to some new loan words.
		The consonant gradation is applied to appropriate words, and then the genitive stem takes the strong grade.
	www.cc.jyu.fi /~pamakine/kieli/suomi/sijat/genetiivivaren.html (1392 words)

	Consonant gradation (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-03)
		Consonant gradation is a type of consonant mutation, found in some Finno-Lappic languages such as Finnish and Sami; particularly Votic has an extensive set of gradation patterns.
		Consonant gradation in some of these languages is no longer purely morphological, although this may be surmised for various reconstructions of Proto-Finnic.
		In archiphonemic terms, the mutation is a type of lenition in which there are quantitative as well as qualitative alternations.
	www.tocatch.info /en/Consonant_gradation.htm (608 words)

	Virittäjä-lehden hakemistot
		Consonant gradation presumably arose in Proto-Finnic, but originally took the form of phonetic variation such that in positions requiring weak grade, geminate plosives were pronounced shorter than usual, with "short endings", and single plosives were pronounced more weakly.
		This change also caused the consonant gradation of single plosives to alter; the precise reason for this depends on the phonetic form of the weak-grade allophones of single plosives at that period.
		The article suggests that the reason why weak-grade geminates became thus shortened was a change in the word-stress contour, a centralization in which the stress peak shifted closer to the begining of the main stressed syllable.
	www.kotikielenseura.fi /virittaja/hakemistot/jutut/vir95nahkola.html (489 words)

	consonant - Hutchinson encyclopedia article about consonant (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-03)
		Sound produced by stopping the air flowing freely through the mouth; a letter representing a sound thus defined (b c d f g h j k l m n p q r s t v w x y z).
		Consonants can be described in various ways, according to where and how the sound is made and whether the vocal cords in the throat vibrate or not.
		This sort of barter is not contradictory to nature, nor is it any species of money-getting; but is necessary in procuring that subsistence which is so consonant thereunto.
	encyclopedia.farlex.com /consonant (251 words)

	Finnish Grammar - Consonant Gradation (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-03)
		Consonant gradation appears in the Finno-Ugric languages and for someone unused to it, it is easy to be tripped up by it.
		In Saame, consonant gradation is regular, but in Finnish it can appear downright arbitrary even years into studying the language.
		E or I? P or V? S or T? Gradation (aka.
	www.uta.fi /~km56049/finnish/consgrad.html (151 words)

	Finnish Grammar Encyclopedia @ FolkArtMuseum.com (Folk Art Museum) (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-03)
		The illative case also changes form with a consonant stem, where the ending -hen is assibilated to -seen, as -hen is the genitive.
		Vocalization or lenition is found in addition to any possible consonant gradation, e.g.
		Consonant gradation is not used; the root for this form is the strong form.
	www.folkartmuseum.com /encyclopedia/Finnish_grammar (4733 words)

	Glottal stop - Biocrawler (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-03)
		Because it is pronounced in the throat, without a component in the mouth, the central/lateral dichotomy does not apply.
		Danish has the glottal stop as a suprasegmental feature, though it is seldom indicated by the orthography; only the consonant clusters 'nd' and 'ld' indicate glottal stop, for example compare Danish hund (dog) /hunʔ/ with hun (she) /hun/.
		In spelling, it may be indicated by a space (separate words), hyphen (identical vowels adjacent in compound words), or an apostrophe (identical vowels adjacent inside a single word due to consonant gradation), or with no notation at all.
	www.biocrawler.com /encyclopedia/Hamza (877 words)

	Chapter Five--Grimm
		The history of views on the consonant shift is virtually a history of linguistic theory until 1875; subsequently it is equivalent to the theory of historical linguistics, from the neogrammarian position (that each consonant should be treated individually) to that propounded today (that the entire shift be viewed as a whole).
		He was also fortunate in his ignorance of phonetics, which permitted him to class together consonants which were quite different in articulation, and to produce a statement which passes beyond details to the system.
		Words in which two consonants agree are doubly certain (Gk trandeacutekhein, þragjan; pódes, fôtjus); those in which one consonant agrees, another deviates, are suspicious; even more suspicious, those whose consonants showed essential equivalence in the three languages without gradation.
	www.ling.hawaii.edu /faculty/stampe/Linguistics/LehmannReader/ch05grimm.html (5251 words)

	Finnish language phonetics
		The grammar of Finnish and the way(s) in which Finnish is spoken are dealt with in separate articles.
		The consonant preceding the inflection of a word (either noun or verb) is subject to consonant gradation.
		Broadly, a consonant will adopt a 'strong' form if the following syllable is 'open' - containing a double vowel or not ending in a consonant - and a 'weak' form otherwise.
	www.ebroadcast.com.au /lookup/encyclopedia/fi/Finnish_language_phonetics.html (443 words)

	Finnish Grammar - Partitive Stem
		A good knowledge of the consonant gradation and also vowel change i ~ e is of great use.
		This rule also applies to words which are affected by the consonant gradation.
		The partitive stem of new loan words, which end in a consonant, is formed simply by adding a vowel i to the nominative stem.
	www.cc.jyu.fi /~pamakine/kieli/suomi/sijat/partitiivivaren.html (866 words)

	Documenting the Lule Sámi twol rules file (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-03)
		The rules are ordered thematically, with 3 main sections: Consonant alternations (except cg), vowel alternations, and consonant gradation.
		This is the gussa : gusá case, where the 2nd syll vowel a is lengthened to á whenever the consonant is shortened to grade I. Stem vowel alternations
		The consonant gradation rules differ considerably from the corresponding rules for Northern Sámi.
	129.242.176.166 /~sd/doc/lang/smj/docu-smj-twol.html (890 words)

	Virittäjä-lehden hakemistot
		The particle -kAAn is assumed to have developed from -kAhan/ -gAhAn, the weak consonant occurring after a vowel in an unstressed syllable, according to suffixival consonant gradation (a feature of Late Proto-Finnic) (Hakulinen 1979: 237; Mäkelä 1993: 10).
		This "weak grade", however, is completely independent of the syllable count in a word, which is a clear indication that it is not the result of phonologically conditioned consonant gradation.
		The function of the suffix in the weak grade became blurred with the loss of the fricative "g": the long vowel in the forms ketää, mitää, missää etc. was gradually understood as a means of emphasising the negation.
	www.kotikielenseura.fi /virittaja/hakemistot/jutut/vir96raisanen.html (723 words)

	[No title]
		Geminated consonants are reduced; clusters become geminates, i.e.
		The marker of the plural is -г with vowel stems and -ыг with consonant stems, e.g.
		The nominative singular is identical to the stem of the word.
	members.tripod.com /~tuonela/english/gamyar.html (1558 words)

	Finnish Noun Inflection
		Even with these limitations, the problem is challenging because the shape of the endings depends on the shape of the stem and the stems are subject to several regular alternations such as Vowel Harmony and Consonant Gradation, and a number of other phenomena.
		In cases where the T in Genitive Plural marker is realized as t, it is subject to the consonant gradation rules and surfaces as d in most cases.
		Consonant Gradation is one that we have already seen and solved.
	www.stanford.edu /~laurik/fsmbook/exercises/FinnishNounInflection.html (1053 words)

	Finnish language grammar
		The inflecting stem is formed by dropping the final '-a', and has a strong consonant in the third-person forms and weak otherwise.
		Note that for third person plural, this is an exception to the general rule for strong consonants.
		The stem is formed by removing the 'a' and its preceding consonant.
	www.ebroadcast.com.au /lookup/encyclopedia/fi/Finnish_language_grammar.html (5222 words)

	Kratkiy Grammaticheskiy Ucherk Vepskogo Jazyka
		Veps consonants can be hard or soft, voiced or unvoiced.
		The consonants "f, , z, z" appear at the beginning of words only in onomatopoetic words and in loanwords of Russian origin, e.g.
		The consonant "n" before "k" and "g" is pronounced as "ng".
	www.geocities.com /Vienna/3259/kratkiy.html (391 words)

	Finnish language phonetics (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-03)
		The grammar of Finnish and the way(s)in which Finnish is spoken are dealt with in separatearticles.
		Originally, Finnish had no initial consonant clusters, thishowever is changing due to influence from other European languages.
		The consonant preceding the inflection of a word (either noun or verb) issubject to consonant gradation.
	www.therfcc.org /finnish-language-phonetics-79136.html (515 words)

	LINGUIST List 5.206: Stem alternation
		Whereas other cases of consonant mutation may be the result of a formerly allophonic variation which has lost its conditioning environment, entailing "close phonetic similarity of the mutating consonants", "Temne mutation arose by a quite different process, which accounts for the phonetic dissimilarity of the mutations".
		Something similar goes on in Northern Saami, where [MJ] "the accusative/genitive of nouns is formed by stem consonant gradation", and there are three consonant grades: weak, strong and extra-strong or 1, 2 and 3.
		Speaking of these Finno-Ugrian gradations, which are historically phonological in motivation but arguably not so synchronically, NS observes that "[t]he formerly agglutinating languages are being transformed into inflecting ones." Information from Andrew Carstairs-McCarthy, Richard Ogden, Marit Julien, Erika Mitchell and Norbert Strade.
	www.ling.ed.ac.uk /linguist/issues/5/5-206.html (1660 words)

	Finnish Grammar - Consonant Gradation - Gradation Tables
		Consonant gradation only affects them in the last syllable of the basic form of the word!
		K is a problem letter in most cases, in some consonant clusters, it can either disappear or not change, thus making it difficult to guess what it does.
		In these cases thus, the basic form is considered the strong form and the gradated form the weak form.
	www.uta.fi /~km56049/finnish/gradtables.html (259 words)

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