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Topic: Cosmic radiation

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Scientific classification

	Cosmic ray - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		Cosmic rays are composed mainly of ionized nuclei, roughly 90% protons, 9% helium nuclei and most of the rest being made up of heavier nuclei.
		Cosmic rays originate from energetic processes on the Sun all the way to the farthest reaches of the visible universe.
		Cosmic rays have been used as a catchall, mostly in comics (notably the Marvel Comics group the Fantastic Four), as a source for mutation and therefore the powers gained by being bombarded with them.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Cosmic_ray (953 words)

	Cosmic background radiation - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		Cosmic background radiation is electromagnetic radiation from the sky with no discernable source.
		The origin of this radiation depends on the region of the spectrum that we are observing.
		There is also background radiation in the infrared, x-rays, etc., with different causes; most of these are ultimately attributable to unresolved individual sources.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Cosmic_background_radiation (200 words)

	Cosmic microwave background radiation - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		In cosmology, the cosmic microwave background radiation (CMB) is a form of electromagnetic radiation discovered in 1964 that radiates throughout the universe in the microwave range.
		The CMB radiation frequency ranges from 0.3 GHz to 630 GHz, and peaks at 160.4 GHz, corresponding to a temperature of 2.725 kelvins.
		As the universe expands, the CMB photons are redshifted, cooling the radiation inversely proportional to the Universe's scale length.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background_radiation (1938 words)

	Features - Pregnancy/In-Flight Cosmic Radiation
		In-flight cosmic radiation poses a small but definitive risk to frequent flyers, a risk that few crewmembers and passengers are aware of.
		However, the risks of in-flight cosmic radiation are easily denied: radiation originates from extraterrestrial sources, including the sun; there are relatively few human studies documenting cosmic radiation effects; the studies use technical language that is difficult for non-radiation professionals to understand.
		Radiation is measured in five different units by different experts and not all radiation absorbed has the same biological effect.
	www.travmed.com /features/neumann_pregnancy_cosmic_radiation.htm (494 words)

	The Cosmic Background Radiation
		This radiation is the strongest evidence for the validity of the hot big bang model.
		The cosmic background radiation (sometimes called the CBR), is the afterglow of the big bang, cooled to a faint whisper in the microwave spectrum by the expansion of the Universe for 15 billion years (which causes the radiation originally produced in the big bang to redshift to longer wavelengths).
		The highly isotropic nature of the cosmic background radiation indicates that the early stages of the Universe were almost completely uniform.
	csep10.phys.utk.edu /astr162/lect/cosmology/cbr.html (660 words)

	Cosmic Radiation
		Cosmic radiation is naturally occurring ionising radiation arising from sources outside the Earth's atmosphere.
		Cosmic radiation accounts for approximately 10% of the total dose received by a typical member of the Irish public from all natural sources.
		Cosmic radiation increases with altitude and so air crews are exposed to enhanced levels of this type of radiation.
	www.rpii.ie /cosmic (268 words)

	Encyclopedia: Cosmic background radiation (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-07)
		WMAP image of the CMB anisotropy,Cosmic microwave background radiation(June 2003) The cosmic microwave background radiation (CMB) is a form of electromagnetic radiation that fills the whole of the universe.
		Categories: Cosmology The Cosmic Neutrino Background (CNB) is the background particle radiation composed of neutrinos Like the CMB, the CNB is a relic of the big bang, whereas the CMB dates from when the universe was 300,000 years old, the CNB decoupled from matter when the universe was 2 seconds old.
		Cosmic background can refer to: Cosmic background radiation Cosmic microwave background radiation (CMB) Cosmic neutrino background This is a disambiguation page â€” a list of pages that otherwise might share the same title.
	www.nationmaster.com /encyclopedia/Cosmic-background-radiation (863 words)

	[No title]
		Because of the reciprocal relationship between corresponding quantities of the material and cosmic sectors, the energy density of the radiation from the cosmic stars would be the inverse of this quantity.
		The total radiation from the cosmic sector is distributed equally between the two temporal directions and consequently the energy density apparent to us would be only half of the total.
		Hence the distribution of the radiation from the core of a cosmic sector star would be the inverse of inverse thermal, that is, thermal.
	www.reciprocalsystem.com /rs/cwkvk/costemp.htm (2088 words)

	ACS :: Cosmic Radiation linked to Leukemia in Commercial Air Crew
		Genetic research links cosmic radiation, to which professional commercial aircrew are exposed, with a rare type of leukemia, although the number of leukemia cases is small and a person would have to fly thousands of hours before his or her health would be at risk.
		Genetic research links cosmic radiation to DNA damage that may result in leukemia in commercial jet cockpit crew, according to the study in the Dec. 23 issue of the Lancet.
		The results indicate that the genetic deletion could be an indicator of previous exposure to ionizing radiation, according to the researchers, who say larger studies will be needed to confirm a link between myelodysplasia, acute myeloid leukemia, and exposure to cosmic radiation in aircrew.
	www.cancer.org /docroot/NWS/content/NWS_1_1x_Cosmic_Radiation_linked_to_Leukemia_in_Commercial_Air_Crew.asp?sitearea=NWS&viewmode=print& (558 words)

	BIOMEDICAL RESULTS OF APOLLO - RADIATION PROTECTION AND INSTRUMENTATION (Sec.2,Ch.3)
		Cosmic ray fluxes, consisting of completely ionized atomic nuclei originating outside the solar system and accelerated to very high energies, provided average dose rates of 1.0 millirads per hour in cislunar space[**] and 0.6 millirads per hour on the lunar surface.
		Radiation doses measured during Apollo were significantly lower than the yearly average of 5 rem[*] set by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission for workers who use radioactive materials in factories and institutions across the United States.
		Radiation protection for the Apollo Program was focused on both the peculiarities of the natural space radiation environment and the increased prevalence of manmade radiation sources on the ground and onboard the spacecraft.
	lsda.jsc.nasa.gov /books/apollo/S2ch3.htm (2300 words)

	Cosmic ray
		Cosmic rays were initially considered to come from some source other than the Sun.
		This was because the Sun was thought to emit little but visible light, and, of course, cosmic rays are isotropic and would arrive at Earth from all directions.
		If in the future, if cosmic rays were being used as Compact Disks(CD's), they will store over 10 gigabytes of information.
	www.brainyencyclopedia.com /encyclopedia/c/co/cosmic_ray.html (214 words)

	Blackbody Radiation
		A uniform background radiation in the microwave region of the spectrum is observed in all directions in the sky.
		The discovery of the 3K microwave background radiation was one of the crucial steps leading to the calculation of the standard "Big Bang" model of cosmology, its role being that of providing estimates of relative populations of particles and photons.
		The scale of the fluctuations is larger than the horizon at the time the background radiation was emitted, indicating that the fluctuations are primordial, dating from a time before the separation of radiation and matter, the transparency point.
	hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu /hbase/bkg3k.html (913 words)

	The Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation
		It was soon determined that the radiation was diffuse, emanated unifromly from all directions in the sky, and had a temperature of approximately 3 Kelvin (2.73K).
		The fact that the spectrum (see figure) of the radiation is almost exactly that of a fl body implies that it could not have had its origin through any prosaic means.
		The surface z=1000 is sometimes called the cosmic photosphere, in comparison with the photosphere (apparent surface) of the Sun.
	aether.lbl.gov /www/science/cmb.html (827 words)

	Energy Citations Database (ECD) - Energy and Energy-Related Bibliographic Citations (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-07)
		Cosmic radiation on its way to earth traverses an area which influences its rntensity.
		Measures of correlation of cosmic radiation and sun activity were made and discussed.
		The location of the source of the radiation on the surface of the sun was determined.
	www.osti.gov /energycitations/product.biblio.jsp?osti_id=4825678 (221 words)

	Science Features : Cosmic radiation why should we care? : Virgin Atlantic Global Flyer (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-07)
		Although the cosmic radiation levels on the ground are quite low, the levels at high altitudes are surprisingly high.
		Cosmic Radiation is created by the interaction of Cosmic Rays with the Earth's atmosphere.
		At ground level, Cosmic Radiation amounts to about 10 percent of the total background radiation that humans are subjected to; however its intensity increases with altitude.
	virginatlanticglobalflyer.com /ScienceAviation/SolarMetrics/cosmic2.jsp (265 words)

	[No title] (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-07)
		This demonstrated that the radiation was from outer space and eventually it was dubbed "Cosmic Radiation".
		The highest energy cosmic rays are very rare (less than one hits a square kilometre of the Earth's surface each century).
		These gamma-ray photons are important when trying to find the origin of cosmic rays since they have no electrical charge and so arrive at the Earth undeflected by the galactic magnetic field.
	www.ast.leeds.ac.uk /haverah/cosrays.shtml (311 words)

	SPACE.com -- Cosmic Radiation Possible in Our Galaxy
		Although the light emitted during the explosion was on par with that of a supernova, the star somehow survived.
		Radiation, whether it's microwaves or X-rays, is made of particles heated up to the point that they move and vibrate at super high speeds.
		Most radiation on Earth comes from sources inside the Milky Way, like the Sun and our stars, but it was thought that super-energetic radiation came from very rare exotic sources like decaying dark-matter and the more common gamma ray bursts outside our galaxy.
	www.space.com /scienceastronomy/cosmic_rays_011112.html (642 words)

	Theory: Radiation
		Ionizing radiation is produced from the decay of an unstable nucleus.
		Radiation exposure that is less than or comparable to this background cannot have any important health effects, as they do not make a significant change in our overall exposure.
		As can be seen from the count rates in the cosmic ray telescope in SLAC's Visitor Center, the number of muons reaching the earth is strongly dependent on the distance through the atmosphere that the muons have traveled.
	www2.slac.stanford.edu /vvc/theory/radiation.html (801 words)

	WMAP Cosmology 101: Cosmic Microwave Background
		The existence of the CMB radiation was first predicted by George Gamow in 1948, and by Ralph Alpher and Robert Herman in 1950.
		Today, the CMB radiation is very cold, only 2.725° above absolute zero, thus this radiation shines primarily in the microwave portion of the electromagnetic spectrum, and is invisible to the naked eye.
		In addition to this cosmic microwave background radiation, the early universe was filled with hot hydrogen gas with a density of about 1000 atoms per cubic centimeter.
	map.gsfc.nasa.gov /m_uni/uni_101bbtest3.html (1150 words)

	Natural Radioactivity
		The increases are consistent with those seen in radiation workers and in persons exposed at high dose levels, although the magnitudes of the increases are somewhat higher than predicted.
		Little of the primary cosmic radiation penetrates to the Earth's surface, the vast majority of it interacts with the atmosphere.
		From cosmic radiation the U.S., the average person will receive a dose of 27 mrem per year and this roughly doubles every 6,000 foot increase in elevation.
	www.physics.isu.edu /radinf/natural.htm (2866 words)

	Cosmic Ray Astronomy Satellites & Missions
		Cosmic ray research began in 1912 when Victor Hess, of the Vienna University, and 2 assistants flew in a balloon to an altitude of about 16,000 ft. They discovered evidence of a very penetrating radiation (cosmic rays) coming from outside our atmosphere.
		NASA began funding of balloons, launching services, and related expenses in connection with high-altitude measurements of electron, low-energy proton, and alpha-particle spectrum of primary cosmic radiation to be conducted by the University of Chicago from Uranium City, Saskatchewan, Canada.
		It measured galactic cosmic ray abundances of protons, anti-protons, hydrogen, and helium isotopes.
	imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov /docs/sats_n_data/cosmic_missions.html (932 words)

	Cosmic radiation
		Radiation originating directly or indirectly from extraterrestrial sources.
		Cosmic radiation is part of natural radiation and its dose depends on the altitude above sea level.
		In the case of air travel, passengers receive an additional dose of cosmic radiation; for a flight Frankfurt - New York - Frankfurt about 0.1 mSv.
	www.euronuclear.org /info/encyclopedia/cosmicradiation.htm (78 words)

	[No title] (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-07)
		The term "Cosmic Rays" refers to elementary particles, nuclei, and electro-magnetic radiation of extra-terrestrial origin.
		The rate of discharge of an electroscope is then used as a measure of the level of radiation.
		The motivation for this study was to distance the eletroscopes from radiation sources in the Earth.
	www.cosmic-ray.org /reading/intro.html (331 words)

	Cosmic Rays (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-07)
		Cosmic ray is the term given to high energy radiation which strikes the Earth from space.
		The intensity of cosmic radiation increases with altitude, indicating that it comes from outer space.
		Almost 90% of the cosmic rays which strike the Earth's atmosphere are protons (hydrogen nuclei) and about 9% are alpha particles.
	hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu /hbase/astro/cosmic.html (384 words)

	McGraw-Hill AccessScience: Cosmic background radiation
		The discovery of this radiation in 1965 by A. Penzias and R. Wilson has had a profound impact on understanding the nature and history of the universe.
		The interpretation of this radiation as the remnant fireball from the big bang by P. Peebles, R. Dicke, R. Roll, and D. Wilkinson, and their correct prediction of the spectrum to be that of a flbody, was one of the great triumphs of cosmological theory.
		The flight of the Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) satellite has both verified the basic nature of the radiation and given deep insight into the mechanism of formation of galaxy clusters in the early universe and the presence of dark matter.
	www.accessscience.com /Encyclopedia/1/16/Est_163750_frameset.html (181 words)

	CBR96
		The relic Cosmic Background Radiation (CBR) carries information on the physical conditions prevailing during the early phases of cosmic expansion, and thus represents an invaluable tool for reconstructing the general history of the Universe, and for the construction of a detailed model of galaxy formation.
		These two lectures are intended to introduce some of the observational techniques used to study the cosmic microwave background radiation (CBR), to list some recent observational results, especially on CBR anisotropies, and to examine the implications of these results for cosmology and theories of astrophysical structure formation.
		The Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation - Introduction to the CMBR in terms of intensity and anisotropy (DTa/DT) spectrum, foregrounds, measurement and brief history of early observations ending with a summary of the knowledge as of early 1992.
	astro.u-strasbg.fr /cbr96.html (1738 words)

	LAMBDA - Cosmic Background Explorer
		The COBE satellite was developed by NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center to measure the diffuse infrared and microwave radiation from the early universe to the limits set by our astrophysical environment.
		The COBE CIB measurements constrain models of the cosmological history of star formation and the buildup over time of dust and elements heavier than hydrogen, including those of which living organisms are composed.
		DMR - The CMB was found to have intrinsic "anisotropy" for the first time, at a level of a part in 100,000.
	lambda.gsfc.nasa.gov /product/cobe (261 words)

	What is cosmic radiation? Is it dangerous?
		Cosmic radiation is a collection of many different types of radiation from many different types of sources.
		The radiation to worry about, of course, is the 'cosmic' radiation produced by our sun.
		There is only one type of cosmic radiation known to adversely affect us and that's UV radiation from our sun, which causes skin cancer in millions of people every year..
	www.physlink.com /Education/AskExperts/ae254.cfm (410 words)

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