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| | FRANCIA |
 | | The "Empire" came to be regarded as consisting of four crowns: (1) East Francia, or Germany, (2) Lombardy (the "Iron Crown"), or Italy, (3) Rome, and, after 1032, (4) Burgundy. |
 | | As neat halves of Charlemange's empire eventually formed, France in the West and Germany in the East, the stage for the greatest battles of modern war in the 17th, 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries would be set along the seam, from Nieuwpoort (1600) to Ramillies (1706), Waterloo (1815), Verdun (1916), and the Bulge (1944). |
 | | Looking backwards and forwards from this point, the French colonial Empire went through two major phases, the original expansion of the 17th and 18th centuries, and the conquests of the 19th century. |
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