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Topic: Dendral

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Expert system

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Terry Winograd

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Mycin

Macsyma

	Box 9.3: Pioneering Expert Systems \| 9: Developments in Artificial Intelligence \| Funding a Revolution: Government ... (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-18)
		The DENDRAL Project was initiated in 1965 by Edward Feigenbaum (one of Herbert Simon's doctoral students in AI); Nobel Prize-winning geneticist and biochemist Joshua Lederberg; and Bruce Buchanan, a recent recipient of a doctorate in philosophy from Michigan State University.
		DENDRAL began as an effort to explore the mechanization of scientific reasoning and the formalization of scientific knowledge by working within a specific domain of science, organic chemistry.
		DENDRAL led to the development of other rule-based reasoning programs at the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (SAIL), the most important of which was MYCIN, which helped physicians diagnose a range of infectious blood diseases based on sets of clinical symptoms.
	www.nap.edu /readingroom/books/far/ch9_b3.html (1109 words)

	Charles Babbage Institute: RESEARCH PROGRAM> Current research (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-18)
		DENDRAL analyzes and identifies the structure of unknown complex organic compounds.
		DENDRAL was the result of cooperation between Joshua Lederberg, a geneticist and a Nobel prize winner in medicine or physiology in 1958, and computer scientist Edward Feigenbaum at Stanford University in 1965.
		DENDRAL (denoting tree in Greek) was originally the name that Joshua Lederberg had chosen for his work in algorithmic programming and the inference problem.
	www.cbi.umn.edu /shp/entries/dendral.html (799 words)

	[No title]
		DENDRAL was designed to analyze mass spectrograms of certain classes of organic compounds.
		The goal of DENDRAL is to deduce the molecular structure of the compounds.
		DENDRAL was actually only capable of dealing with a small number of compounds and it has never been used commercially.
	cs1.bradley.edu /public/cs522/book/s4p6.doc (3380 words)

	Historical Projects (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-18)
		The DENDRAL Project was one of the earliest expert systems.
		After more than a decade of collaboration among chemists, geneticists, and computer scientists, DENDRAL had become not only a successful demonstration of the power of rule-based expert systems but also a significant tool for molecular structure analysis, in use in both academic and industrial research labs.
		Its performance rivals that of human experts for certain classes of organic compounds and has resulted in a number of papers that were published in the chemical literature.
	smi-web.stanford.edu /projects/history.html (3073 words)

	House Feir -- Story (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-18)
		Although Dendral enjoyed victory after victory on the front lines, there was no end to the numbers of orcs flowing into the world of Azeroth from their home world of Draenor, and slowly and surely, the once great army of House Feir turned into a ragged, but fierce, band of warriors.
		Receiving news of his father's death, Dendral rounded up his soldiers and went home, expecting to be welcomed with open arms and sympathy for his loss.
		Dendral never had a chance to defend the Kingdoms once again...
	www.housefeir.net /story.htm (586 words)

	DENDRAL (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-18)
		DENDRAL - Identify Organic Compounds from Mass Spectrometer Data
		DENDRAL is an interactive program that uses the molecular formula, the spectrographic data, and the encoded heuristic knowledge of organic chemists and geneticists.
		DENDRAL uses a data driven approach to the molecular structure search - it explores possible molecular configurations in the search for the true structure.
	www.chem.ac.ru /Chemistry/Soft/DENDRAL.en.html (71 words)

	More AI History (2) - Artificial Intelligence - 08/10/97
		DENDRAL worked very well until the number of rules and logic grew beyond a certain point of complexity, when it became very difficult to add new rules or make adjustments to existing ones while maintaining stability.
		The fundamental advance representred by MYCIN over DENDRAL was that its knowledge base was separated from the control structure.
		DENDRAL and MYCIN were terrific advances for AI in an academic/scientific sense, but they were not ready for prime time in the real world of chemists or doctors.
	www.mikiko.net /library/weekly/aa081097.htm (830 words)

	[No title] (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-18)
		"DENDRAL" is the name of the research project, which was conducted at Stanford University from 1965-1980, under Joshua Lederberg, Edward Feigenbaum, Bruce Buchanan, and Carl Djerassi as principal investigators.
		DENDRAL originally stood for DENDRitic ALgorithm, a procedure for exhaustively and nonredundantly enumerating all the topologically distinct arrangements of any given set of atoms, consistent with the rules of chemical valence.
		The CONGEN program, the CONstrained GENerator, is one of the most important programs resulting from this research and embodies the general (acyclic and cyclic) generation algorithm in a system that allows a chemist to constrain its enumeration in a variety of ways.
	www.cs.cmu.edu /afs/cs.cmu.edu/project/ai-repository/ai/util/areas/reasonng/chem/congen/0.doc (230 words)

	Explanatory Hypotheses (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-18)
		In order to do this it is equipped with a theory of the (imperfectly understood) ways in which molecular structures fragment under electron bombardment, as happens in the mass spectrometer, and it uses this theory to guide a heuristic search through the extremely large set of chemically possible molecular structures.
		It seems fairly clear that Heuristic DENDRAL and Meta-DENDRAL are but the lowest rungs of a ladder of which each successive rung corresponds to an explanatory theory of greater generality and power.
		In terms of Heuristic DENDRAL and its task, the first problem corresponds to that of specifying the range of possible molecular structures and the mass spectrometer theory, and the second to that of organising the heuristic search through the set of candidate structures.
	www.chilton-computing.org.uk /acl/applications/cocoa/p007.htm (2120 words)

	History of AI, Part II
		They were surprised to find that most experts did not reach decisions via a lengthy process of "if...then," statements, but rather that they drew on their incalculably large store of specialized knowledge.
		Accordingly, DENDRAL was created as a very large LISP program containing as many relevant facts about molecular chemistry as possible.
		The MIT crowd was skeptical of DENDRAL at first, but the system quickly proved useful, and by the mid 1980's, expert systems were beind considered the future of AI.
	www.slais.ubc.ca /courses/libr500/2000-2001-wt1/www/k_munro/historyAI2.htm (603 words)

	ME290M, Spring 1999, Week 2
		The DENDRAL generator can enumerate every possible organic structure that satisfies the constraints apparent in the data by systematically generating partial molecular structures consistent with the data and then elaborating them in all possible ways.
		Although knowledge in DENDRAL is represented as a procedural code DENDRAL was interesting as it was one of the first knowledge inensive system developed..
		DENDRAL surpasses all humans at its task and, as a consequence, has caused a redefinition of the roles of humans and machines in chemical analysis.
	best.me.berkeley.edu /~aagogino/me290m/s99/Week2/week2.html (3934 words)

	No Slide Title
		Use knowledge more suited to making larger reasoning steps and to solve typically occurring cases in a narrow area of expertise.
		Dendral - inferred molecular structure from the information provided by a mass spectrometer.
		Unlike Dendral, Mycin had to obtain rules from experts, no general theoretical model existed.
	isis.uwimona.edu.jm /dmcs/cs_courses/cs33q/notes_html/intro_files/slide0049.htm (130 words)

	DENDRAL (from artificial intelligence) -- Britannica Student Encyclopedia (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-18)
		In 1965 the AI researcher Edward Feigenbaum and the geneticist Joshua Lederberg, both of Stanford University, began work on Heuristic DENDRAL (later shortened to DENDRAL), a chemical-analysis expert system.
		The substance to be analyzed might, for example, be a complicated compound of carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen.
		More results on "DENDRAL (from artificial intelligence)" when you join.
	www.britannica.com /ebi/article-219100 (811 words)

	ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND THE PRESERVATION OF MIND
		Expert systems incorporated the value of knowledge as well as logic in problem-solving, and had the promise of being as useful as human experts.
		The first expert system was DENDRAL, a system for narrowing-down the possible chemical structure of a compound based on formula, spectral information and the encoded wisdom of chemists.
		DENDRAL proved its success by deducing the structure of Di-n-decyl C20H22 from 11 million possible combinations.
	www.benbest.com /computer/ai.html (7170 words)

	Charles Babbage Institute: RESEARCH PROGRAM> Current research (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-18)
		After having done DENDRAL and MYCIN together, Feigenbaum recalls geneticist Joshua Lederberg finally telling him in the early 1970s that the “time was now ripe” to develop an expert system in his own field, molecular biology.
		What DENDRAL did for mass spectrometry, MOLGEN was able to do for research on recombinant DNA or genetic engineering.
		Both DENDRAL and MOLGEN were successful because the fields they entered were young and dynamic, allowing the systems to keep up with and directly contribute to the growth of the field.
	special.lib.umn.edu /cbi/shp/entries/molgen.html (819 words)

	Joshua Lederberg: Computers in Biomedical Research
		He was helped by computer scientist Edward A. Feigenbaum and a team of interdisciplinary researchers in chemistry and medicine at Stanford University.
		In 1965 this group inaugurated DENDRAL (for Dendritic Algorithm), a computer program that formalized and emulated the inductive reasoning of chemists in identifying unknown organic compounds.
		This image captures the objective of DENDRAL, ACME, and SUMEX-AIM to supplement the analytical and diagnostic skills of scientists and physicians with the processing speed and data-storage capacity of modern computers.
	www.nlm.nih.gov /hmd/lederberg/computers.html (457 words)

	Abstract (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-18)
		A profinite group is then said to be dendral if it has a tree-like Cayley graph with respect to some generating set; a Bass-Serre type characterization of dendral groups is provided.
		We define a pseudovariety of groups H to be arboreous if all finitely generated free pro-H groups are dendral (with respect to a free generating set).
		Our motivation for studying such pseudovarieties of groups is to answer several open questions in the theory of profinite topologies and the theory of finite monoids.
	www.fc.up.pt /cmup/bsteinbg/abstracts/abs28.html (219 words)

	[No title]
		The histories of AI generally agree that this was the motivation behind Dendral, one of the first {\it expert systems}.
		Instead of trying to construct grand methods which would solve any problem, Dendral's creators took a highly specific problem, that of interpreting mass spectra.
		This is of interest to many chemists, and the Dendral project was set up as a collaboration between a group of chemists who needed to interpret mass spectra, and a group of Artificial Intelligentsia who saw this as a good test of the new approach.
	www.j-paine.org /students/tutorials/tutorials/ps.tex- (2756 words)

	April 27 memorial set for computer scientist Bob Engelmore
		He worked on the first expert system, DENDRAL, which had applications in physical chemistry.
		In the early 1970s, when the DENDRAL project extended its focus to include areas of biology, medicine and engineering, it was renamed the Heuristic Programming Project (HPP).
		Its computer programs utilized heuristic reasoning -- a term Stanford mathematician George Polya popularized and defined as "the art of good guessing." Heuristic programs employ a combination of artificial intelligence and knowledge from experts to "reason" through complex issues.
	news-service.stanford.edu /news/2003/april23/engelmoreobit-423.html (732 words)

	m7 (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-18)
		Robotics, chess programs, and DENDRAL were unique achievements of the 1960s.
		In 1965, Stanford University at the request of NASA, developed DENDRAL (Developed by Feigenbaum and Buchanan), a computer program that could perform chemical analysis of the soil on Mars.
		A paper in 1973 showed that DENDRAL performed better than human experts on certain problems.
	www.eng.upm.edu.my /~mdaud/kbp5612/m7.htm (991 words)

	KSL-87-54 (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-18)
		They have given me permission to recall how I came to work with Ed Feigenbaum on DENDRAL, an exemplar of expert systems and of modelling problem-solving behavior.
		My recollections are baed on a modest effort of historiography, but not a definitive survey of and search for all relevant documents.
		The DENDRAL effort (along with much of medical informatics) is dedicated to discovery: should we use a different standard for its history?
	www-ksl.stanford.edu /KSL_Abstracts/KSL-87-54.html (165 words)

	dendral - OneLook Dictionary Search (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-18)
		We found 3 dictionaries with English definitions that include the word dendral:
		Tip: Click on the first link on a line below to go directly to a page where "dendral" is defined.
		dendral : Hutchinson's Dictionary of Difficult Words [home, info]
	www.onelook.com /?w=dendral (77 words)

	[No title] (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-18)
		B.G. Buchanan and E.A. Feigenbaum, "Dendral and Meta-Dendral: Their applications dimension", readings list.
		DENDRAL parts: Experise: Prelimary inference maker Families of organic compounds Data adjuster Generate and adjust fragment mass table Structure generator Simple combining theory valence info Prediction Rough mass spectrometer theory Evaluation Comparison metric consistency rules Each part is a production system.
		DENDRAL is efficient because it assumes that it is interacting with a knowledgeable user who can delete certain hypotheses from further consideration.
	www.cc.gatech.edu /classes/cs3361_98_winter/expert.txt (1801 words)

	Organisation profile: Dendral Inc (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-18)
		Dendral SmartSell is a unique web service that intelligently guides a user through an interactive sales process.
		Customers get an online experience that more closely resembles a traditional face-to-face interaction with a highly trained sales professional who guides them through the sale of products and services-and learns about them in the process.
		DSS is based on Dendral's breakthrough Core Technology, which transforms conventional static libraries of information into intelligent communications processes.
	www.elsnet.org /orgs/3129.html (114 words)

	DBLP: Edward A. Feigenbaum
		Edward A. Feigenbaum, Bruce G. Buchanan: DENDRAL and Meta-DENDRAL: Roots of Knowledge Systems and Expert System Applications.
		Robert K. Lindsay, Bruce G. Buchanan, Edward A. Feigenbaum, Joshua Lederberg: DENDRAL: A Case Study of the First Expert System for Scientific Hypothesis Formation.
		Bruce G. Buchanan, Edward A. Feigenbaum: Dendral and Meta-Dendral: Their Applications Dimension.
	www.informatik.uni-trier.de /~ley/db/indices/a-tree/f/Feigenbaum:Edward_A=.html (406 words)

	Chapter 3 (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-18)
		DENDRAL (Stanford: 1965) "perhaps the first system to demonstrate that it is possible for a computer program to rival the performance of domain experts in a specialized field."
		Considered a "stepping stone" from older AI programs since it is based on heuristic search but involves an explicit representation of the domain knowledge (before systems used just states)
		a DENDRAL program - "constructs complete chemical structures by manipulating symbols that stand for atoms and molecules...receives as its input a molecular formula, together with a set of constraints which serve to restrict the possible interconnections among atoms.
	www.ecst.csuchico.edu /~amk/foo/csci222/notes/Chap3.html (897 words)

	Th QuoteRef: lindRK6_1993 (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-18)
		--> Lindsay, R.K., Buchanan, B.G., Feigenbaum, E.A., Lederberg, J., "DENDRAL: a case study of the first expert system for scientific hypothesis formation", Artificial Intelligence, 61, 2, pp.
		242 ;;Quote: the DENDRAL expert system had a quite limited impact on organic chemistry; it was not useful for large difficult problems
		242+;;Quote: DENDRAL's successors generated possible solutions to a problem; they generated too many candidates for difficult problems, while simple problems could be done by hand
	www.thesa.com /th/th-106-161-169-th-8-208-2.htm (171 words)

	Computer History Museum - Timeline (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-18)
		Acquired by Stanford University in 1963, it holds a place among the first artificial robotic arms to be controlled by a computer.
		Robots & AI A Stanford team led by Ed Feigenbaum created DENDRAL, the first expert system, or program designed to execute the accumulated expertise of specialists.
		Robots & AI Marvin Minsky developed the Tentacle Arm, which moved like an octopus.
	www.computerhistory.org /timeline/timeline.php?timeline_category=rai (822 words)

	Expert Systems (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-18)
		The description of what characterizes an expert system given in the introduction is worth thinking about.
		[Buchanan and Feigenbaum1981] Dendral and Meta-Dendral: their applications dimension.
		A concise overview of the Dendral and Meta-Dendral programs.
	www-cs-students.stanford.edu /~pdoyle/quail/syllabus/node9.html (188 words)

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