| | Columns: Inelastic Buckling |
 | | In between, for a column with intermediate length, buckling occurs after the stress in the column exceeds the proportional limit of the column material and before the stress reaches the ultimate strength. |
 | | However, when the forming process is taken into account, the residual stresses caused by processing can not be neglected and the proportional limit may drop up to 50% with respect to the yield stress in some wide-flange sections. |
 | | The tangent-modulus theory tends to underestimate the strength of the column, since it uses the tangent modulus once the stress on the concave side exceeds the proportional limit while the convex side is still below the elastic limit. |
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