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	Imperial Circle - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		A map of the Imperial Circles as at the beginning of the 16th century.
		An Imperial Circle (in German Reichskreis, plural Reichskreise) was a regional grouping of states of the Holy Roman Empire, primarily for the purpose of organising a common defence and of collecting imperial taxes, but also as a means of organisation within the Reichstag (Imperial Diet).
		These ten circles remained largely unchanged until the early 1790s, when the Wars of the French Revolution brought about significant changes to the political map of the Empire.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Imperial_Circle_Estates (266 words)

	Germany
		The electors were also influenced by public opinion when they declared at Rense in 1338 that a legitimate German emperor could be created only by their votes; a king so chosen needed no papal recognition, and the pope, by crowning the German king, only gave him the imperial title.
		The electoral college was to consist of the three Archbishops of Mainz, Trier, and Cologne; the Count Palatine of the Rhine, the Duke of Saxony (Sachsen-Wittenberg), and the Margrave of Brandenburg; to this number was added later the King of Bohemia.
		The electors were granted special privileges; besides the royal rights (regalia) and those of taxation and coinage, they received the privilegium de non evocando, that is, their subjects could not be summoned before the court of another jurisdiction, not even before an imperial one.
	www.catholicity.com /encyclopedia/g/germany.html (22633 words)

	Lalor, Cyclopaedia of Political Science, V.3, Entry 107, PRUSSIA: Library of Economics and Liberty
		There is an elector of the second degree for every 250 inhabitants; and the districts must be combined in such a manner as to include a population corresponding to six electors of the second degree.
		On the accession of the great elector (1640) the whole of the revenues of the state were valued at 400,000 thalers; on his death (1688) the receipts were valued at 2,500,000 thalers.
		While in the Rhenish districts the public ministry extends its surveillance over the whole of the administration of justice, including the ministerial, their jurisdiction is limited, in the rest of Prussia, to affairs pending before to tribunal and to matrimonial affairs.
	www.econlib.org /library/YPDBooks/Lalor/llCy877.html (13206 words)

	the Holy Roman Empire
		Electors appeared in person, entrusted their vote to another elector, or more often sent an electoral embassy, even if they were present (as the king of Bohemia in 1657 and 1690, or the elector of Mainz in 1741).
		The electors proceeded on horseback from the city hall to the cathedral, and convened in the electoral chapel, and swore to choose the worthiest man, and to accept the majority vote.
		In 1741 the electors decided to exclude the ambassadors of Karl's daughter Maria Theresia, queen of Bohemia, not because she was a woman but because of the pending dispute over that crown (the elector of Bavaria had just seized Prague and had himself crowned king of Bohemia in December 1741).
	www.heraldica.org /topics/national/hre.htm (11303 words)

	NAPOLEON - LoveToKnow Article on NAPOLEON (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-10)
		For the present their means were very scanty, and, as the ardent royalism of his brother officers limited his social circle, he plunged into work with the same ardour as before, frequently studying fourteen or fifteen hours a day.
		The horror aroused by this crime did not long deaden the feeling, at least in official circles, that something must be done to introduce the principle of heredity, as the surest means of counteracting the aims of conspirators.
		That power had been on the point of offering her armed mediation in revenge for his violation of her territory of Anspach; but she was fain to accept the terms which he offered at the swords point.
	51.1911encyclopedia.org /N/NA/NAPOLEON.htm (21626 words)

	Footnotes; Lalor, Cyclopaedia of Political Science, Volume III: Library of Economics and Liberty
		The qualifications for an elector are that of having been on the electoral roll for six months, and of having arrived at twenty-one years of age; and the qualifications for members are the same.
		No electoral property qualification is required for graduates of British universities, matriculated students of the Melbourne university, ministers of religion of all denominations, certificated schoolmasters, lawyers, medical practitioners, and officers of the army and navy.
		The number of electors on the roll of the legislative council was increased by the action of the bill of 1881 from 33,105 to about 110,000; the number of electors for the legislative assembly was 176,022, according to the latest returns.
	www.econlib.org /LIBRARY/YPDBooks/Lalor/llCyNotes3.html (17887 words)

	[No title] (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-10)
		Where thrifty princes, carrying on a paternal rule, duly regulated and extended the official body (as in Saxony the Elector Augustus, in Brandenburg the Margrave John), this activity was of no slight importance for the welfare of the land, and the consolidation of its economic forces.
		Many of the princes of the time were interested in technical improvements and inventions, had their own laboratories and alchemists, sought to establish mines, and erected mills, glassworks, and saltworks; here and there magnificent castles and fortresses were built with the aid of Italian architects and foreign artists and artisans.
		Inasmuch as the states that were the first to obtain colonies on a large scale, Spain and Portugal, had secured from the Pope a partition of the whole oceanic world, and its designation by him as their exclusive property, the law of nature, when it made its appearance, put forward the doctrine of Mare liberum.
	socserv2.socsci.mcmaster.ca /~econ/ugcm/3ll3/schmoller/mercant (12526 words)

	The Books
		The brave Moritz, who at that time was Elector of Saxony, and from whom the emperor thought he had nothing to fear, suddenly turned his weapons against him, and drove him to such extremities, that the emperor was obliged to comply with the conditions prescribed to him by Moritz.
		The elector's design did, however, not extend so far, as by any violent means to counteract the pope, nor to separate himself and his electorate from the Romish church, although he knew well how necessary and indispensable it was to extirpate many errors and abuses in religion.
		He came to the elector, and represented to him, that the people were by Luther excited against indulgences, by which means the authority of the pope was diminished; that Tetzel had, however, by his licentious behaviour, given occasion to it.
	www.spokenwordchurch.com /books/thelifeofmartinluther.htm (17340 words)

	fin-arkiv
		The third and narrowest circle is the regroupment in a single organisation of revolutionary Marxist militants belonging to various traditions, as is the case with the Basque Zutik for instance.
		A fourth circle, broader than the three aforementioned, appeared in the recent years: it is the regroupment of forces opposed to neo-liberalism, which includes forces and currents that cannot accurately be described as anti-capitalist, but believe in the possibility of shaping a "humane" variant of capitalism.
		Projected at an international scale, these four circles are to be conceived as non-concentric: the narrowest circle cannot pretend to be at the leading centre of the broadest one, unless it fell prey to the illusions of opportunist wishful thinking or sectarian isolationism.
	www.fin-arkiv.blogspot.com /2002_09_22_fin-arkiv_archive.html (18990 words)

	Kreis -- Britannica Student Encyclopedia (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-10)
		(German: “Circle”), any of the several imperial circles (administrative districts) of the Holy Roman Empire from the early 16th century until its dissolution in 1806, a period in which the empire became an increasingly looser federation of principalities.
		The Kreise were the Burgundian, Lower Rhine-Westphalian, Lower Saxon, Upper Saxon, Electoral Rhenish, Upper Rhenish,...
		The philosophical movement associated with the Circle has been called variously logical positivism, logical empiricism, scientific empiricism, neopositivism, and the unity of science movement.
	www.britannica.com /ebi/article-9046224 (378 words)

	[No title]
		The "founders" (Gründer) were primarily industrialists, bankers, businessmen, as well as broad circles of the middle class who now invested heavily in a wide variety of economic spheres sometimes without having a very clear idea of their chances on the market and their prospects for the future.
		The Rhenish entrepreneurs in particular tended to be liberal in their economic and social views, but a fundamental change in this pattern occurred as a result of the economic slump that hit after 1873 (Gründerkrise).
		Regarded unilaterally in the nineteenth century as the nadir of German imperial glory, as the state's ignominious prostration before the church, Canossa was repeatedly invoked as a warning in national liberal circles, in the press, and in the pubs.
	www.dhm.de /ENGLISH/ausstellungen/bismarck/169.htm (2187 words)

	Page 43
		The northern and southern limits respectively were Altrip and Lauterburg, while in the east the diocese extended to the present W iirttemberg circle of Jagat, and in the west to the vicinity of Pirmasenz.
		But although the chiefs of the Evangelical party, Elector John of Saxony and Landgrave Philip of Hesse, had not yet arrived, the two princely colleges, on June 30, demanded some action in the matter of terminating abuses.
		In 1801 that portion of the diocese to the left of the Rhine, which had been permanently occupied by the French, was divided between the sees of Kai= and Strasburg, while the district to the right of the river was later shared by Freiburg and Rottenburg.
	www.ccel.org /s/schaff/encyc/encyc11/htm/old/0063=43.htm (851 words)

	Untitled Document
		The Luders belonged to a class of free, that is land-owning peasants, on a stable level of adequate prosperity settled in Thuringia in the electoral principality of Saxony.
		Elector and accepted his suggestion to summon Luther to Worms with the imperial promise of safe conduct.
		They elected as their captain Franz von Sickingen, a German partisan leader of the grand style of an Italian condottiere of the fourteenth century, whose ambition it was to create a unified Germany with himself as the ruler instead of the Spaniard Charles who could not even speak German and governed Germany from Madrid.
	www.e-rappaport.com /C7.htm (12109 words)

	Beckfordiana: Dreams, Letter VIII
		Numbers of well-dressed people were amusing themselves with music and fireworks in the squares and open spaces; other groups appeared conversing in circles before their doors, and enjoying the serenity of the evening.
		We were driven in the evening to Nymphenburg, the Elector's country palace, the bosquets, jets-d'eaux, and parterres of which are the pride of the Bavarians.
		This instant I found myself in a circle of grave Armenian priests and jewellers; the next amongst Greeks and Dalmatians, who accosted me with the smoothest compliments, and gave proof that their reputation for pliability and address was not ill-founded.
	beckford.c18.net /wbdreams8.html (14896 words)

	Germany Substates
		She was married to elector Karl Albrecht of Bavaria, and was a passionate hunter, loved parties and politics.
		After Elector Max III Joseph died in 1777, the Bavarian throne was inherited by Elector Karl Theodor von der Pfalz.
		The daughter of Ernst August von Braunschweig-Lüneburg, who later became Elector of Hannover and Sophie von der Pfalz, who was named heir to the British throne in 1701, she was mother of two sons, and lived (1668-1705).
	www.guide2womenleaders.com /Germany_Substates.htm (12794 words)

	The Thirty Years War: The Battle of White Mountain and the End of the Bohemian Rebellion
		The three religious electors, the Electors of Mainz, Trier and Cologne were Catholic, as was Ferdinand.
		The Elector of Saxony was a Lutheran; the Electors of Brandenburg and the Palatinate Calvinist.
		The Elector also demanded a mortgage over the Lusatias to defray his expenses and some vague comfort that Lutherans would be protected from the Imperial wrath.
	www.pipeline.com /~cwa/White_Mountain_Phase.htm (2528 words)

	TABLE OF CONTENTS
		Electors as prescribed by the Golden Bull did not become the fashion; but the habit of common deliberation became firmly established, and the carelessness of the Luxemburg Emperors, as to all matters not affecting their hereditary dominions, gave the Electoral College an opportunity of playing a foremost part in national history.
		The six Electors similarly had each a nomination to a seat, and the remaining eight assessors were to be appointed by the rest of the Estates, grouped for the purpose into six large Circles.
		A seventh Circle, that of the Lower Rhine, was to comprise the dominions of the fonr Rhenish Electors.
	www.uni-mannheim.de /mateo/camenaref/cmh/cmh109.html (19479 words)

	BOOK 12.
		The elector provided Protestant preachers for the churches; permitted the Sacrament to be dispensed in both kinds; gave the priests leave to marry; and on January 10th, 1546, Divine service, in the tongue of the people, was celebrated in room of the mass in the Cathedral-church of Heidelberg.
		The Electors of Cologne and Brandenburg remained neutral, as did also the Elector Palatine.” 7 The Margrave of Misnia, and the two princes of Brandenburg, though all Protestants, declared for the emperor.
		The Elector of Saxony, the Landgrave of Hesse, the Duke of Wurtemberg, the princes of Anhalt, the cities of Augsburg, Ulm, and Strasburg, alone set this formidable armament on foot.
	www.godrules.net /library/wylie/102wylie_b4.htm (10724 words)

	Kreisstände (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-10)
		The function of each Circle was primarily the administration of Imperial law and the maintenance of order, but the assemblies also served to assess local opinion and to direct regional efforts as circumstances dictated.
		The system was formalized in 1500, when Emperor Maximilian I created 6 circles (Bavaria, Franconia, Lower Saxony, Swabia, Upper Saxony, Westphalia), and reorganized twelve years later into ten, with the addition of Austria, Burgundy, the Rhenish Electorates, and the Rhine Palatinate.
		The system of electors slowly emerged out of the early Middle Ages - there are several references to it in the 12th century - and by 1263 the seven electors had become more-or-less fixed.
	www.hostkingdom.net /Kreiss.html (589 words)

	[No title]
		Thus, without meeting any opposition, Bernadotte's columns reached Würzburg at the close of September; there the Elector of Bavaria welcomed the Marshal and gave him the support of his 20,000 troops; and at that stronghold he was also joined by Marmont.
		The terms finally arranged in the Treaty of Pressburg (December 26th, 1805) may be thus summarized: Austria recognized the recent acquisitions and changes of title made by Napoleon in Italy, and ceded to him her parts of Venetia, Istria, and Dalmatia.
		For Napoleon, as Protector of the Rhenish Confederation, now controlled most of the German lands that acknowledged Charlemagne, while his hold on Italy was immeasurably stronger.
	www.ibiblio.org /pub/docs/books/gutenberg/1/4/2/9/14290/14290-8.txt (17129 words)

	Karl Marx: His Life and Works, Trial Part I (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-10)
		Upon this instigation, the democratic circle committee issued a proclamation drafted by Marx, Schapper, and Schneider, advocating the preparation of armed resistance.
		The only concrete result of the activities of the Rhenish revolutionists was that Lassalle was arrested in Düsseldorf; and that Marx, as editor-in-chief of the “Neue Rheinische Zeitung,” Engels as his associate, and Korif as publisher of the paper, were prosecuted for advocating armed resistance to the military and civil authorities.
		On April 15, 1849, Marx, Wilhelm Wolff, Schapper, and Hermann Becker announced their resignation from the democratic circle committee: “We consider that the extant organization of the democratic societies includes so many heterogeneous elements that the adoption of appropriate tactics is impossible.
	www.marxists.org /archive/ruhle/1928/marx/ch04.htm (11958 words)

	Reference.com/Encyclopedia/Imperial Circle Estates
		In 1495, the Holy Roman Empire was divided into Imperial Circles (in German: Reichskreise).
		As of 1792, the Empire was divided into ten circles - Austrian, Bavarian, Burgundian, Franconian, Electoral Rhenish, Lower Rhenish-Westphalian, Lower Saxon, Upper Rhenish, Upper Saxon, and Swabian.
		The Imperial Knights, also, were not included in any of the Circle Estates, nor were certain other territories.
	www.reference.com /browse/wiki/Imperial_Circle_Estates (265 words)

	PRELIMINARY REMARKS
		Landgraves, Electors and Grand Dukes of Hesse and Princes of Battenberg.
		Small capitals are used for succession of minor territorial potentates, as Electors, Archdukes, etc., and for titles of a branch line in the table, in brackets.
		Merged in the Meissen Circle and united with Saxony.
	www.uni-mannheim.de /mateo/camenaref/cmh/vol13.html (3049 words)

	Footnotes for Volume 7 of Marx-Engels Collected Works (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-10)
		After the March revolution of 1848, reactionary circles in the German states tried to revive the Federal Diet and use it to undermine the principle of popular sovereignty and prevent the democratic unification of Germany.
		These were, indeed, of a contradictory nature and their character was affected by the counter-revolutionary aims and expansionist policy of the ruling circles in the feudal monarchical states fighting on the side of the anti-French coalition.
		Although the protest campaign prevented reactionary circles from carrying out their schemes with regard to Marx immediately, he was in danger of being deported from Prussia as a “foreigner”.
	www.marxists.org /archive/marx/works/cw/volume07/footnote.htm (17592 words)

	The History of Protestantism - Volume First - Book Sixth - From the Leipsic Disputation to the Diet at Worms, 1521
		The electors, on consideration, were of the mind that it would be wiser to elect one of themselves to wear the imperial crown.
		On the 28th of June, 1519, the electoral conclave, in their scarlet robes, met in the Church of St. Bartholomew, in Frankfort-on-the-Main, and[proceeded to the election of the new emperor.
		The haughty envoy of the Papal court assumed a tone bordering on insolence in the elector's presence.
	www.doctrine.org /history/HPv1b6.htm (18109 words)

	Imperial Circle Estates
		Each circle was organized so that the states in a different region of the Empire would be able to organize a common defense.
		The Imperial Circle Estates (Reichskreisstandschaft) were the assemblies of each Circle.
		Names in parentheses indicate the owner of these territories, as many different territorial units were frequently ruled by the same prince.
	www.sciencedaily.com /encyclopedia/imperial_circle_estates (304 words)

	germanytext.html
		Today "The Rhenish Palatinate extends from the left bank of the Rhine and borders in the S on France and in the W on the Saarland and Luxembourg.
		The Marshal of Zabern, with the few troops of the Elector, was powerless against them, and on May 10 the Elector was compelled to conclude an agreement with the peasants, guaranteeing them a redress of their grievances, to be effected by a Diet.....
		There was general uncertainty concerning the correct judgment of the Anabaptists, from the elector, who sought the advice of jurists and theologians, to the local officials, who kept asking for instructions.
	www.cynthiaswope.com /withinthevines/germanytext.html (17109 words)

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