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Topic: European Defense Community

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		Such visionary attempts as the European Coal and Steel Community, the European Defense Community, and the European Economic Community, were all to a large degree possible because the United States had shown the Europeans that large-scale cooperation was indeed possible.
		That the EDC failed is not nearly as important as determining _why_ it failed; establishing the causes of this failure will demonstrate the limits of American foreign policy's effectiveness in Europe as well as the boundaries of progress for the European federalists.
		In his study of American policy and European union, Ernst H. van der Beugel states that: While it is true that American foreign policy towards Europe [from 1950 to 1954] had as one of its primary objectives the inclusion of German military strength in the defense of the West, it is equally true that...
	www.ibiblio.org /pub/academic/history/marshall/diplomatic/coldwar/us_fp_europe.txt (15730 words)

	Business Economics: The European Community and the world economy
		The transformation of the European Community in the past thirty years provides illuminating insight into the interaction between economic and political factions and is an outstanding example of political economy at work in its widest sense.
		The European Community was conceived originally by its founding fathers as a political entity designed above all to prevent the occurrence of wars among the European nations with its bloodshed, loss of life and physical destruction.
		While the scope of the European Coal and Steel Community and the European Atomic Energy Community were restricted to coal and steel industries and nuclear industries, respectively, the European Economic Community covered all aspects of economic, social and political activity.
	www.findarticles.com /p/articles/mi_m1094/is_n4_v24/ai_7987127 (1217 words)

	Western European Union. The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001-05 (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-29)
		After France had refused to ratify a treaty providing for a European Defense Community, the WEU was created as a substitute solution embodied in the Paris Pacts.
		Since Western military cooperation had been dominated by the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and Western economic coordination by the European Economic Community and later the European Free Trade Association, the primary function of the WEU was to supervise the rearmament of Germany, as provided for under the Paris Pacts.
		Under the Maastricht Treaty (1992), the WEU was envisioned as the future military arm of the European Union (EU); it remained institutionally autonomous.
	www.bartleby.com /65/we/WestrnEU.html (282 words)

	Global Beat: Somebody to Pick up the Phone (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-29)
		European leaders, many of whom complained about being too dependent on the United States during the Kosovo crisis, are determined to generate their own ability to act without their ally across the Atlantic.
		European leaders at Cologne declared their intention to involve Turkey, but the lack of an institutional tie between Turkey and ESDI remains a concern.
		Europeans are attempting to add heft to their foreign and security policy, but they are not creating their own army.
	www.nyu.edu /globalbeat/emu/Spirtas070199.html (983 words)

	Conversation with Guenter Burghardt, p. 3 of 4
		But the United States had understood at a very early stage, as much as the Europeans themselves have understood, that to return to a system of nation states in Europe without a common denominator, just everybody looking at the United States to solve their problems on an individual basis, would not be in their interest.
		The European Defense Community, there was no discussion whether European Defense capability would be harmful for the alliance.
		Europeans, because of their recent experience [in building the European Union], try to come up with multilateral solutions and become part of a larger multilateral process, whereas we are faulted, not necessarily but sometimes by the Europeans, because we are unilateralists.
	globetrotter.berkeley.edu /people2/Burghardt/burghardt-con3.html (1715 words)

	European Union
		The ultimate goal of the European Union is “an ever closer union among the peoples of Europe, in which decisions are taken as closely as possible to the citizen”.
		The common European face of the coins represents a map of the European Union against a background of transverse lines to which are attached the stars of the European flag.
		The European Anthem - adapted from the final movement of Beethoven's 9th Symphony - was adopted by the Council of Europe in 1972.
	www.mscd.edu /~mdl/gerresources/eurounion.htm (1456 words)

	Commentary Magazine - What Mendes-France's "New Deal" Stands For (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-29)
		...The European Defense Community was not an organic outcome of the policy of European integration, which had taken its first step toward concrete realization in the establishment of the European coal and steel union in the spring of 1950...
		...The third act was the burial of the European Defense Community, which had sunk to the level of a local ideological squabble on the order of the issue of secular schools...
		...At the Rome conference of European foreign ministers in the spring of 1953, with Bidault representing France in the place of Schuman for the first time, she began to beat a retreat from all the international commitments she had undertaken jointly with her European partners, by proposing ever new conditions, supplementary protocols, and interpretations...
	www.commentarymagazine.com /Summaries/V18I4P7-1.htm (6572 words)

	Germany Western European Union - Flags, Maps, Economy, History, Climate, Natural Resources, Current Issues, ...
		Those in the United States critical of moves to revive the WEU, however, suggested that a European defense structure was redundant and could evolve as a competitor for NATO resources and personnel.
		Britain and the Netherlands in particular were reluctant to accept the premise that a European defense could be dominated by the French and the Germans.
		NATO remained central to German foreign and defense policies because of the organization's institutional ties to the United States, a fact that caused unrest in the French foreign policy establishment and among like-minded thinkers in Germany, who sought evolution away from an alliance dominated by the United States.
	www.photius.com /countries/germany/government/germany_government_western_european_uni~7806.html (1346 words)

	Germany - Rearmament and the European Defense Community
		Although the Bundestag ratified the treaties, the EDC was ultimately blocked by France's parliament, the National Assembly, because it opposed putting French troops under foreign command.
		After plans for the EDC had failed because of the French veto, negotiations were successfully concluded on the Treaties of Paris in May 1954, which ended the Occupation Statute and made the FRG a member of the Western European Union (WEU--see Glossary) and of NATO (see The North Atlantic Treaty Organization; Western European Union, ch.
		In spite of remaining disagreements on the areas of European integration and NATO, a basis for the development of more normal relations between their two countries was forged upon a good personal understanding between Adenauer and French president Charles de Gaulle, who had assumed the French presidency in 1958.
	countrystudies.us /germany/51.htm (1224 words)

	Parameters: Fortress Europa: European defense and the futur... @ HighBeam Research (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-29)
		While most European countries have generally met their commitments for ground forces, there is significant concern about their overall readiness and training as well as their dual-hatted assignments to both the EU and NATO.
		In 2001, the Chiefs of the European Navies proposed a European Maritime Fleet as the capstone to an interoperable joint force.
		The Europeans cannot presently meet the goals they established for themselves for mutual defense, even though they have chosen to concentrate on peacekeeping and humanitarian missions that are at the lower end of the military risk continuum.
	www.highbeam.com /library/doc0.asp?DOCID=1G1:95447359&refid=holomed_1 (6703 words)

	Chp2-Globalization and Democracy (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-29)
		In a famous joint declaration, these groups called for the European states after the war to "surrender irrevocably their sovereign rights in the sphere of defense, relations with powers outside the Union, international exchange and communications." The practical steps they advocated included a joint army, a joint democratically elected parliament, and a Supreme Court.
		While the European federalists did not call for a European president, the federalist system that they proposed was otherwise similar to the federalist structure embodied in the U.S. Constitution.
		The Community did establish a type of Supreme Court - the European Court of Justice - as well as a parliament, but the parliament was not directly elected by the people.
	www.wwnorton.com /lowi6/Chapters/chp2/gd2.htm (780 words)

	World: European union not a foregone conclusion
		European leaders meeting in Brussels June 16 and 17 will be struggling to identify the causes of this rejection, and the actions they take will determine if the union bounces back -- as it has so often in the past -- or if European integration freezes in place for years to come.
		Verluise said that because of this lack of debate, the European Union came to be seen in the popular perception as constructed by and for the elites.
		Alain Wijffels, a professor of European constitutional history at the University of Leiden in the Netherlands, lectures on legal history at several universities in France, Belgium and the Netherlands.
	www.natcath.com /NCR_Online/archives2/2005b/061705/061705t.php (1373 words)

	Germany Info: Government & Politics: The European Union
		The European Union (EU) is a unique institutional framework for the construction of a united Europe.
		Through the Treaty establishing a Single Council and a single Commission of the European Communities (Merger Treaty) of 1965, the institutions of the ECSC, the EEC and EURATOM were merged with the aim of strengthening the political influence of the Council and the Commission and streamlining the work of the Community intitutions.
		With the single European Act of 1986, the Treaty on European Union signed in Maastricht in 1992 and the new Treaty of Amsterdam of 1997, further steps have been taken towards the unification of Europe.
	www.germany-info.org /relaunch/politics/eu/eu1.html (468 words)

	Parameters: Fortress Europa: European defense and the future of the North Atlantic Alliance
		The European democracies, in spite of their wealth and optimism, are also on the hit list and can no longer afford to make shortsighted bargains with terrorist states.
		Such was the level of American domination, there was actually a fear in some European capitals that congressional reaction in Washington would signal a retrenchment behind America's ocean barriers, rather than see the United States continue to bear a disproportionate burden of European defense.
		At the European Union's 1996 Berlin Ministerial Conference, the Clinton Administration lent its support for the European Security and Defense Identity (ESDI) with the ostensible objective of redistributing defense costs and military responsibilities for peacekeeping and crisis management among NATO members.
	www.findarticles.com /p/articles/mi_m0IBR/is_4_32/ai_95447359 (1391 words)

	The Avalon Project : Statement by the President of United States Policy Respecting the Western European Union, March ...
		At the time when there was under consideration the Treaty to establish a European Defense Community, I made a public announcement of certain principles which would guide United States policies and actions with respect to Western Europe in the event that Treaty should be ratified.
		The Western European Union and the related arrangements agreed upon in Paris are designed to ensure this cooperation and thereby to provide a durable basis for consolidating the Atlantic relationship as a whole.
		In accordance with the basic interest of the United States in the North Atlantic Treaty, as expressed at the time of ratification, the Treaty was regarded as of indefinite duration rather than for any definite number of years.
	yale.edu /lawweb/avalon/intdip/westeu/we007.htm (863 words)

	Salvatore Lombardo: European Union/History (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-29)
		Discuss the objectives and structure of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC).
		Discuss the factors that contributed to the acceleration of the process of European integration at the end of the 1980s.
		Discuss the significance for European integration of the "Ventotene Manifesto" (1941) by Altiero Spinelli and Ernesto Rossi.
	www.siena.edu /lombardo/neweb/europe/review/history.htm (554 words)

	John O'Sullivan on Tony Blair & Jacques Chirac on National Review Online
		To establish that Britain was committed to a "European" identity despite its absence from the euro, he had embraced a common European defense and security policy by signing an Anglo-French treaty of practical military cooperation at St. Malo.
		That was similarly designed to wound Blair since the European security and defense policy was the main issue on which he had tried to demonstrate Britain's European credentials.
		And the cheers of the European crowds are ringing in his ears and filling him with a sense of destiny.
	www.nationalreview.com /jos/jos032403.asp (2571 words)

	Lungu \| European Security
		The first attempt to construct a European Defense Community (EDC) was a response to U.S. insistence, following the outbreak of the Korean War, for West Germany to be rearmed so as to supply military manpower to meet the Soviet threat, thus reducing the necessity for large-scale U.S. forces in Europe (1950-1954).
		It was a primarily political concept developed by West European member states in their search for greater convergence of identity of interests while not changing the basic political and military structure of the Alliance and Europe.
		With the October 27, 1984, Rome Declaration the WEU was reorganized as a “light” structure comprising: (1) a council, which meets regularly at the ministerial and ambassadorial level; (2) a staff and several working groups, which assist the council; and, (3) a parliamentary assembly that gathers four times a year.
	www.unc.edu /depts/diplomat/AD_Issues/amdipl_11/lungu.html (1584 words)

	European Unification (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-29)
		Coudenhove-Kalergi's European Parliamentary Union held a conference at Gstaad, Switzerland in July, 1947, and followed it with others, Churchill was affiliated with Britain's United Europe Movement, and similar societies existed in France, Germany, and the smaller states.
		Troops not placed in the EDC army, such as soldiers on colonial duty or providing internal security, remained under their own flag, that is, the five countries still could possess national armies.
		Nor did Dulles' threat that unless the EDC were established, the Americans might be forced to an ''agonizing reappraisal'' of their continued presence on the continent.
	mars.acnet.wnec.edu /~grempel/courses/wc2/lectures/eurunion.html (2795 words)

	H-Net Review: Sean Kennedy on France Restored: Cold War Diplomacy and the Quest for Leadership in ...
		Confronted with demands from their allies to allow the FRG to contribute to Western European defense, they initially sought to shape the agenda and contain West Germany within a multinational military structure.
		In sum, the EDC seemed to be exacerbating, rather than dispelling, tensions within the alliance; within the French foreign ministry, officials became increasingly convinced that it did not serve the country's interests.
		Rather, their leaders had ultimately concluded that the EDC was not the proper instrument with which to implement their national strategy.
	www.h-net.msu.edu /reviews/showrev.cgi?path=18409996001629 (1884 words)

	EUROPEAN SECURITY AND DEFENSE POLICY
		Europeans have sought since the European Defense Community proposal failed in the 1950s to develop a vehicle to give expression to a European concept of common defense independent from but closely coordinated with NATO.
		Americans have reacted with ambivalence, welcoming the notion that Europeans could do more in their own defense but worrying lest that effort undermine transatlantic ties and NATO, and all-important link to Europe.
		The Europeans in the European Union Treaty concluded in Maastricht have reaffirmed their goal of a "European Security and Defense Identity" (ESDI) [part of but apart from NATO], and at its Summit in April 1999 NATO and the US endorsed that goal.
	www.basicint.org /europe/ESDP/main.htm (285 words)

	Parameters: Fortress Europa: European defense and the futur... @ HighBeam Research (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-29)
		To strengthen NATO and to make European defense a reality, we Europeans need to restructure our defense capabilities so that we can project force, can deploy our troops, ships, and planes beyond their home bases and sustain them there, equipped to deal with whatever level of conflict they may face.
		Since NATO assets will be used in European operations for as far into the future as we can see, operational command should be handed to a European officer of commensurate standing within NATO.
		If the Europeans want to be viewed as an equal, they will have to match their capabilities to their rhetoric.
	www.highbeam.com /library/doc0.asp?DOCID=1G1:95447359&refid=holomed_1 (6703 words)

	Western European Union on Encyclopedia.com (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-29)
		The president's news conference with European Union leaders in Brussels.
		The president's news conference with European Union leaders in the Hague, the Netherlands.
		Memorandum: urgent: how to fix Europe's image problem: the European Union must showcase its democracy-building skills while avoiding moral grandstanding and its own version of unilateralism.
	www.encyclopedia.com /html/w/westrne1u1.asp (826 words)

	Publisher description for Library of Congress control number 00027836 (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-29)
		Using the European Defense Community (EDC) as a case-study, this book examines the competing and often conflicting views of the British and American governments towards European integration in the early–1950s.
		When despite these efforts, the EDC finally collapsed in August 1954, NATO was plunged into arguably the most severe crisis in history.
		In the end, the British were instrumental in the creation of the Western European Union as a successor to the EDC.
	www.loc.gov /catdir/description/hol051/00027836.html (238 words)

	ARCHIVE OF EUROPEAN INTEGRATION - "Developing Europe into a "Third Great Power Bloc": The United States, ...
		In opposition to US policy today, during the 1950’s, the United States was a strong, even the primary supporter, of a supranational European defense force with the goal of creating a European power bloc.
		Moreover, the failure of the French to ratify the EDC was a major step on the road to mistrust between France and the US that continues to exist today.
		European Union Studies Association (EUSA): Biennial Conference: 2005 (9th), March 31-April 2, 2005
	aei.pitt.edu /archive/00003269 (204 words)

	European Union
		French Parliament refused to ratify EDC Treaty in August 1954; Pierre Mendes-France.
		In 1979 the European Monetary System (EMS) came into existence linking nine European currencies to each other in what is called a "snake".
		A European Currency Unit (ECU) now serves as a unit of account for many EC transactions.
	faculty.ucc.edu /egh-damerow/european_union.htm (461 words)

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