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	Marie Vento: One Thousand Years of Chinese Footbinding: Its Origins, Popularity and Demise
		In its most extreme form, footbinding was the act of wrapping a three- to five-year old girl's feet with binding so as to bend the toes under, break the bones and force the back of the foot together.
		Footbinding can not be shown to have been necessary to group survival as it conferred obvious disadvantages on its recipients, who given a choice, might not have participated in it.
		That footbinding was legitimized by scholars and tied to the custom of the patriarchal Chinese family, perpetuating the kinship system, was no adequate stronghold against the forward momentum of history, education and labor opportunities, and capitalist individualism.
	academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu /core9/phalsall/studpages/vento.html (0 words)

	Circumcision and Footbinding
		In its most extreme form, footbinding was the wrapping of a three- to five-year old girl's feet with strips of cloth, bending the toes under the foot, breaking the bones and forcing the heel toward the front of the sole.
		Nonetheless, footbinding abolished in a way that was both chaotic and unfair, with sloganeering and excesses of the anti-footbinding movement of the 1920's reminiscent of Cultural Revolution excesses, claiming many families as its victims.
		For men footbinding is troubling because it suggests not only that men are capable of perceiving a gruesomely crippled foot as an object of sexual pleasure, but that they are further capable of using their superior social position to coerce women to conform to a standard of beauty that is both deformed and grotesque.
	www.circumstitions.com /Foot.html (2936 words)

	Footbinding
		In order for the borders of the Chinese nation to be kept strong clothing was changed and used to represent China.
		It is therefore reasonable to think that footbinding must have been stronger in the northern parts of China were borderlines were constantly being battled for rather than in the south.
		Indeed footbinding was much more prevalent in the north.
	www.csuchico.edu /~cheinz/syllabi/fall99/linzey/where.html (273 words)

	Clitoridectomy: A Nineteenth Century Answer to Masturbation
		Footbinding and FGC are essentially equivalent practices, and originate from similar causes, which I do not discuss here in order to remain brief.
		Footbinding lasted for a thousand years, was universal among all “decent” Chinese, and was undented by liberal agitation and imperial prohibition in the 19th century.
		The convention hypothesis predicts that FGM can be terminated through mechanisms similar to those used to end footbinding: explanation of the physiological dangers of the practice, international condemnation of the practice, & (most importantly) associations of parents who refuse to subject their daughters to the practice or marry their sons to victims of the practice.
	www.fgmnetwork.org /articles/mackie1998.html (2233 words)

	[No title]
		Footbinding, thus, was never (as was often assumed by Westerners) a universal phenomenon but was a widespread cultural ideal present as strongly as ever during the 19th century when opposition to the practice (especially by those from the West or influenced by Western thoughts) finally started to experience some success.
		The Christian opposition to the practice of footbinding was based upon their belief that it was unnatural and that God’s constructions of women should not be altered by humans (Levy 1966: 75).
		In order for the practice of footbinding “an inextricable part of Chinese culture” to disappear, the population as a whole had to be convinced that it was no longer necessary or desirable to bind their women’s feet (Levy 1966: 107).
	xroads.virginia.edu /~UG02/fox/work/footbinding.doc (4507 words)

	History of Footbinding
		She speaks bitterly of the past and of the painful custom of footbinding, which she blames for keeping her both illiterate and a virtual prisoner in her own home for the last 75 years.
		As was perhaps inevitable, footbinding's popularity spread from the upper classes to all levels of society.
		Footbinding continued to gain official and popular sanction as an expression of cultural refinement.
	www.josephrupp.com /history.html (2007 words)

	Tostan News - Female Genital Cutting - The Beginning Of The End (Site not responding. Last check: )
		Footbinding lasted for a thousand years, was universal among all “decent” Chinese, and was undented by liberal agitation and imperial prohibition in the 19th century.
		Footbinding and FGC, however, are each a special kind of convention, one family’s choice does depend on another family’s choice, such that either nearly everyone does it or no one does it, so that when it ends it must end quickly.
		Footbinding, which girls and their mothers had endured for centuries, was extraordinarily unelaborated, virtually empty of “culture” in its ideational/ritual sense.
	www.tostan.org /news-fgc.htm (12847 words)

	Anthropology Review Database
		That footbinding was popularized in the Song indicates the transition; she argues the practice became entrenched in Chinese culture and art.
		The third chapter, Footbinding and the Cult of the Exemplary Woman, begins with an argument on "...how the duality of footbinding reflects the duality of the Chinese feudal system..." in which "moral restriction" can be opposed to culturally prized opportunities for "great expenditure" (p.
		She summarizes her thoughts about constructions of femininity and masculinity as they are reflected in footbinding and reiterates her ideas about footbinding as a female subversion of the social order.
	wings.buffalo.edu /ARD/cgi/showme.cgi?keycode=1525 (2805 words)

	Marie Vento: One Thousand Years of Chinese Footbinding: Its Origins, Popularity and Demise
		In its most extreme form, footbinding was the act of wrapping a three- to five-year old girl's feet with binding so as to bend the toes under, break the bones and force the back of the foot together.
		Footbinding can not be shown to have been necessary to group survival as it conferred obvious disadvantages on its recipients, who given a choice, might not have participated in it.
		That footbinding was legitimized by scholars and tied to the custom of the patriarchal Chinese family, perpetuating the kinship system, was no adequate stronghold against the forward momentum of history, education and labor opportunities, and capitalist individualism.
	www.fordham.edu /halsall/women/vento.html (2233 words)

	McClung Museum: Special Exhibit
		In the 19 th century, as foreign influences began to be felt in China, and the lower classes began to imitate their wealthier neighbors, footbinding declined among upper class women.
		After the nationalist revolution in 1911, footbinding was again officially banned, and the practice declined greatly, except for small groups living in the countryside.
		Footbinding was associated with another important role of Chinese women, domestic production of textiles, and the making of shoes.
	mcclungmuseum.utk.edu /newspecial_exhibit/footbinding (903 words)

	Intersections Review: Aching for Beauty: Footbinding in China
		It was the appropriate emblem for the marriage of the refined and the cultivated: it was impractical, infirm, hyper-refined and asthenic.
		The practice of footbinding served other social purposes besides style and status marker for the elite marriage, for if gender definitions among the elite were served, so were moral prescriptions of the social conservative.
		Footbinding enforced strict sexual and social roles—sexual definitions were writ large, and the defiance of custom seen in Southern cities among the prosperous had a natural enemy in the bound foot.
	wwwsshe.murdoch.edu.au /intersections/issue13/cass_review.html (1516 words)

	Classic Chinese Erotic Literature, Asian Erotica: Chinese Footbinding
		Footbinding was practiced in China from about the 11th century to the founding of the Chinese republic in 1911.
		An examination of the footbinding tradition through the shoes because as the author points out, "most of the bodies are gone; only the shoes remain".
		With her perfectly proportioned feet, she is married to a wealthy family and eventually becomes its matriarch, staunchly defending the practice against the anti food-binding forces that arose in the early 1900s.
	www.yellowbridge.com /literature/erotica4.html (319 words)

	Cinderella's Sisters: CHAPTER ONE
		Footbinding is a symbol of her early humiliation, and unbinding, a sign of her will to be a public agent.
		When footbinding found its sole defender in such an odd character, we can only conclude that it had ceased to be a prestigious or even relevant practice during the first two decades of the twentieth century.
		The thesis of this chapter is that the rhetoric and discourse of tianzu contributed to the extinction of the aura of footbinding.
	www.ucpress.edu /books/pages/10328/10328.ch01.html (10326 words)

	Every Step a Lotus -Shoes for Bound Feet is available from Bestprices.com Books! (Site not responding. Last check: )
		Her absorbing, superbly detailed, and beautifully written book demonstrates that in the women's eyes, footbinding had less to do with the exotic or the sublime than with the mundane business of having to live in a woman's body in a man's world.
		Footbinding was likely to have started in the tenth century among palace dancers.
		This contradictory image of footbinding as at once degenerate and virtuous, grotesque and refined, is embodied in the key symbol for the practice--the lotus blossom, being both a Buddhist sign of piety and a poetic allusion to sensory pleasures.
	www.bestprices.com /cgi-bin/vlink/0520232844BT?source=priceleap (627 words)

	Highbeam Encyclopedia - Search Results for Footbinding
		Footbinding is no more, but painful pursuit of beauty lives on.(ENTERTAINMENT)
		Oliver Bennett explores the tradition of warping the female form, from Chinese footbinding to the push-up bra.(Features)
		Oliver Bennett explores the tradition of warping the female form, from Chinese footbinding to the push-up bra
	www.encyclopedia.com /SearchResults.aspx?Q=Footbinding&StartAt=11 (860 words)

	½¬-Lotus of Tears (Site not responding. Last check: )
		Footbinding was a unique culture of China, which lasted for more than a thousand years.
		Similar to breast binding and corsets fashion in the history of the western culture, footbinding should be considered as a physical improvement by performing procedures against nature as well.
		She was told to bind her feet so that it would look like the shape of a moon and allowed her to dance like a strand of cloud at the center of the golden lotus.
	individual.utoronto.ca /goldenshoe/originpopularity.html (460 words)

	Rutgers Focus - Books
		Footbinding started as a literary conceit as early as the third century, which idealized the delicate tread of nymphs and maidens.
		Footbinding became a victim of its own success, as elites came to view the practice as vulgar once its popularity spread to peasant women.
		It was then that the focal point of footbinding moved from the display of women's handiwork to the naked flesh and bones that filled it.
	ur.rutgers.edu /focus/article/Books/948 (680 words)

	1,000 years of Footbinding
		The second theory is that footbinding was simply a fashion statement and a source of admiration for the beauty of the small bound foot.
		Footbinding was outlawed in 1912 and was stopped completely by the 1930’s.
		Daly describes the ritual of footbinding as “a thousand-year long horror show in which women were grotesquely crippled from a very early age” and that the “Chinese patriarchs saw to it that their girls and women would never ‘run around’”.
	www.conniewrite.com /footbinding.html (4839 words)

	NPR : Painful Memories for China's Footbinding Survivors
		Footbinding was first banned in 1912, but some continued binding their feet in secret.
		The Shang Empress had a clubfoot, so she demanded that footbinding be made compulsory in the court.
		Some scholars say footbinding deepened female subjugation by making women more dependent on their men folk, restricting their movements and enforcing their chastity, since women with bound feet were physically incapable of venturing far from their homes.
	www.npr.org /templates/story/story.php?storyId=8966942&ft=1&f=1021 (1644 words)

	Barnard College Newscenter
		Approaching China's cultural history with the eye of an art collector and museum curator, Ko -- the author of a well-received history of footbinding -- now is turning her attention to the dress-making tradition of China's silk industry region.
		Working at the intersections of anthropology, history, and women's studies, Ko found while researching footbinding that many things women had made in China were seldom written about.
		"While researching women's footbinding and shoe-making tradition in China, I was inspired by the prospect of growing my research from feet to the body and from the body to the different domestic spaces in the house, such as the kitchen, in order to learn more about women's experiences," Ko said.
	www.barnard.columbia.edu /newnews/news021803.html (845 words)

	Barnard College Newscenter
		Approaching China's cultural history with the eye of an art collector and museum curator, Ko -- the author of a well-received history of footbinding -- now is turning her attention to the dress-making tradition of China's silk industry region.
		Working at the intersections of anthropology, history, and women's studies, Ko found while researching footbinding that many things women had made in China were seldom written about.
		"While researching women's footbinding and shoe-making tradition in China, I was inspired by the prospect of growing my research from feet to the body and from the body to the different domestic spaces in the house, such as the kitchen, in order to learn more about women's experiences," Ko said.
	www.barnard.edu /newnews/news021803.html (845 words)

	Cinderella's Sisters
		Her ingenious narrative strategy--putting the modern story of foobinding's disappearance at the beginning--sets up her historical account of its premodern heyday as a story of concealment--of hidden sources, hidden bodies, and hidden meanings.
		Conventional views of footbinding as patriarchal oppression often neglect its complex history and the incentives of the women involved.
		This revisionist history, elegantly written and meticulously researched, presents a fascinating new picture of the practice from its beginnings in the tenth century to its demise in the twentieth century.
	www.ucpress.edu /books/pages/10328.html (587 words)

	Footbinding - Australian Museum's Body Art
		Chinese folklore attributes the origins of footbinding to a fox who tried to conceal its paws while assuming the human guise of the Shang Empress.
		Another version suggests that the Empress had a club foot and insisted that all women bind their feet so that hers became the model for beauty in the court.
		Footbinding began in China during the Song dynasty (10th century) and continued until the end of the Qing dynasty.
	www.amonline.net.au /bodyart/shaping/footbinding.htm (776 words)

	Footbinding wins honours at Yorkton fest
		Footbinding: Search for The Three-Inch Golden Lotus, a film produced, written and directed by British Colombia filmmaker Yue-Qing Yang, received the National Film Board Kathleen Shannon Award along with a $1,000 cash prize.
		Though, t he practice was abolished in the 1930s, its cruel legacy deeply affected Yue-Qing: her mother, aunt and grandmother all bound their feet, and bear the scars.
		Produced with the participation of VisionTV and the National Film Board of Canada, Footbinding follows the Chinese-born filmmaker as she returns home to uncover the truth about a tradition responsible for centuries of silent female suffering.
	www.visiontv.ca /Media/Releases/Footbinding_Yorktown.html (226 words)

	BOOK REVIEW OF SPRING 2001
		Her ignorance of the techniques and meaning of footbinding is not surprising, as China's modern revolutions had cut her off from this knowledge-knowledge that had shaped the lives of Chinese women for a thousand years.
		Although footbinding was later defined as the central symbol of Chinese men's subjugation of Chinese women, footbinding was entirely a woman's matter, performed on young girls by their mothers.
		Since footbinding was a symbol of the superior refinement of Chinese culture, it was women, not men, who distinguished the Chinese from the barbarians, and the unbound feet of Manchu women were the most obvious sign of the distinction between Manchus and Chinese during the Qing dynasty.
	www.persimmon-mag.com /spring2001/bre_sp2001_6.htm (761 words)

	Heavenly Feet Society (Anti-Footbinding League) badge (Site not responding. Last check: )
		Footbinding probably originated towards the end of the Tang dynasty (618-906), as a fashion among palace dancers.
		The earliest recorded opponent to footbinding was a writer from the Song dynasty (960-1279) called Ch'e Jo-shui, and the Manchus who conquered China in the seventeenth century tried without success to abolish the practice.
		However, it was during the late nineteenth century that opposition became more widespread, and the abolition of footbinding became closely associated with the emancipation of women.
	www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk /compass/ixbin/goto?id=OBJ12787 (277 words)

	Prostitution and footbinding:
		Footbinding was the practice by which women’s feet were made small by using a bandage to bend the toes under the sole of the foot, increasing the arch of the foot to an extreme so that the toes and heel were brought as close together as possible.
		Ultimately, Chinese wives who could be bought for a sum of money (the size of which depended on many factors including the size of their bound feet) were, like Chinese prostitutes and slave girls, the property of men; they knew few avenues of escape from the lives into which they were born or sold.
		Footbinding apologists have frequently discussed the similarities between footbinding and corseting, or even the more modern practice of wearing high-heeled shoes.
	userwww.sfsu.edu /~epf/2001/chang.html (7292 words)

	GoTricities.com > Exhibit shows torture, beauty of footbinding
		The Frank H. McClung Museum’s new traveling exhibit “Bound to Be Beautiful: Footbinding in Ancient China,” from the collection of Dr. John K. Fong, features more than 60 objects including many pairs of beautiful shoes Chinese women wore to showcase their small feet.
		The tomb of Lady Huang, the wife of an imperial clansman, reveals her feet were bound in gauze.
		By the 12th Century, footbinding was widespread among the upper classes, particulary the ethnic Han Chinese, but it had spread to other ethnic groups.
	www.gotricities.com /content/article.dna?idNumber=050608081540 (734 words)

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