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Topic: Forelimbs

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		The retention of the pectoral girdle and forelimbs in birds is due to a particular behaviour in the early bipedal bird-ancestors.
		The forelimbs of coelurosaurs, Struthiomimus (Gregory, 1917), Deinonynchus (Ostrom, 1969) and Archaeopteryx (Ostrom, 1975 a) correspond to this intermediate structure of forelimb.
		At the bipedal stage the forelimbs did not support the body, but came to hang suspended in the trapezius muscles which are fan-like attached to the neck and back of the animal and insert on the acromial parts of the scapulae and the upper parts of the clavicles.
	home13.inet.tele.dk /palm/ori3.htm (4296 words)

	Journal of NeuroEngineering and Rehabilitation \| Full text \| Gait dynamics in mouse models of Parkinson's disease and ...
		Forelimb and hind limb stance widths were calculated as the perpendicular distance between the major axes of the left and right paw images during peak stance.
		Forelimb stride dynamics in these 3NP-treated mice did not differ significantly from saline-treated mice and the three 3NP-treated mice that were able to walk on the treadmill belt at 34 cm/s (Figure 4, lower panel).
		We found that gait variability of the forelimbs was highest in 3NP-treated mice, in parallel with the higher gait variability in patients with HD as compared to patients with PD The higher forelimb stride length variability in 3NP-treated mice may reflect the jerky movements of arms in HD patients [61].
	www.jneuroengrehab.com /content/2/1/20 (7392 words)

	page0 (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-06)
		The angle of the forelimb and shoulder bone is near 90º.
		The length of the forelimbs up to the elbow is equal to, or a little bit longer than, half the height of the dog at the withers.
		The joints of the forelimbs and hind limbs freely straighten.
	www.cs.wisc.edu /~craft/plumb-creek-kennels/book3.html (300 words)

	The Origin of Birds
		The hooking grip of the forelimbs of a pre-bird which climbed a tree-trunk in this manner was performed by the pectoral muscles which were enforced as the ability of climbing was improved.
		Simultaneous with the performance of these hind limb movements a fierce ventral pull of the forelimbs simultaneously with the outstretching of the forelimbs was performed to release the hooking grip.
		Because of the oblique orientation of the body-axis during the down-jump the recovery movements of the forelimbs became upstrokes, and the entire body was reshaped.
	home13.inet.tele.dk /palm/origbird.htm (3427 words)

	Desert Diary, 13 Nov 2002--Forelimbs (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-06)
		The classic example is the forelimb of land vertebrates.
		In the bat, the hand is enlarged to form the main part of the wing, while in the bird, fingers are lost and bones fused to support the wing feathers.
		The wing is made up of the same basic elements as our own forelimbs, with differences largely due to changes in proportions and, of course, the spreading out of the skin to form the flight membrane.
	museum.utep.edu /archive/biology/DDforelimb.htm (312 words)

	Brain-dependent movements and cerebral-spinal connections: Key targets of cellular and behavioral enrichment in CNS ... (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-06)
		When one forelimb is severely impaired by cervical spinal hemisection or severe nigrostriatal dopamine depletion, and the nonimpaired forelimb is lifted off the ground along with the hindlimbs, the rat either fails to step with the impaired forelimb or takes fewer steps that may be smaller in size.
		When both forelimbs of rats with severe unilateral nigrostriatal injury are on the ground, the impaired limb appears to step, alternating with the nonimpaired forelimb.
		To force use of the impaired forelimb, the rats were fitted with plaster of paris "vest" casts that encased the upper torso and nonimpaired forelimb during the first week after exposure to the dopamine-cell neurotoxin.
	www.vard.org /jour/03/40/4Sup1/schallert.html (4659 words)

	SFL ORG News Center Simple Developmental Changes Gave Bats Flight
		The unique shape of the bat's forelimb is due to higher rates of both chondrocyte division and terminal maturation.
		Terminal chondrocyte maturation occurs in a part of the growth plate known as the hypertrophic zone, which is correspondingly larger in bat forelimbs than in mouse forelimbs.
		Forelimbs cultured with a Bmp2 blocking protein, on the other hand, developed a smaller hypertrophic zone and shorter digits than those grown normally.
	www.sflorg.com /sciencenews/scn041806_01.html (707 words)

	Wolf Anatomy and Behaviour
		Mammalian forelimbs are not attached to the axial skeleton by joints.
		In quadrupeds, the body hangs in a "sling" of muscle and tendon stretched between the forelimbs and clavicles and attached to the body by muscle-muscle connections along the shoulder blades.
		After the heavy muscle mass of the haunch (biceps femoris, glutei, tensor fascia lata) was removed, a scalpel could be inserted at the edge of the socket and force applied; a sucking sound indicated the induction of air into the joint capsule and the limb would come loose.
	www.soappuppy.com /wolf/fleshing.html (1045 words)

	Mononykus olecranus
		The size and position of Mononykus forelimbs seem to preclude their use for digging extensive tunnels for this animal to travel through, although they might be an adaptation for digging small areas for specific food items, such as roots from the ground or insects from tree bark.
		The heavily-clawed forelimbs might have been used for sparring and/or grappling during mating or disputes.
		Ultimately, we may never know what the forelimbs were used for, and even if a plausible use were suggested, it could never be proven conclusively.
	www.hmnh.org /gdotw/05.html (266 words)

	Untitled Document
		In the process, the forelimbs would have been available to assist in stabilizing (if not actively contributing towards elevating) the body by pushing against the ground.
		Reconstruction of the pectoral girdles and forelimbs based on CT data (but for the radiale and distal carpal, which were sculpted within DinoMorph™).
		Note that with elbows and manus extended, the forelimbs can act as a ‘jack stand’ to stabilize the body during ascent, but that the line of action of the ground reaction force would have placed the furcula under significant bending stress, consistent with commonly observed healed fractures.
	www.cs.uoregon.edu /~kent/DinoMorph/Tyrannosaurus/RexSit.html (654 words)

	Equine forelimb anatomy - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		This is in contrast to the forelimbs of several other vertebrates, including humans, which also have skeletal attachments (the coracoid and clavicle bones).
		In the standing horse, the forelimbs together support approximately 60% of the weight of the horse, and this pattern is carried over to locomotion, where the forelimb props the weight of the horse, while forward momentum is generated by the hind limbs (Merkens et al., 1993; Merkens and Schamhardt, 1994).
		The bones of the equine forelimb distal to the carpus.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Equine_forelimb_anatomy (774 words)

	COMPARATIVE BIPEDALISM: How the rest of the animal kingdom walks on two legs (Philosophistry)
		The evolution of bipedalism in lizards, then, was a hybrid spandrel-adaptive process, formed by a combination of existing larger hindlimbs, smaller forelimbs, selection pressures for speed, and a natural lift that occurs upon acceleration.
		For birds, the forelimbs ultimately evolved for flight and so were free of axial loads.
		In the case of primates and birds, bipedalism evolved because the forelimbs were highly specialized for other purposes.
	www.philosophistry.com /static/bipedalism.html (2919 words)

	Re: more time animal spends in water, more highly specialised its forelimbs?
		Each one shows a series of specializations (not just in their forelimbs, but in their entire body) suited to their lifestyle, and we could continue this continuum of animal types to move up into the tress, or out into the plains, or even into the desert (as unaquatic as you can get).
		But the sea lion's evolutionary history chose a path that made its forelimbs adopt a more fin-like shape, while the polar bears followed a path so that their forelimb was able to maintain a more "paw"-like shape.
		In most cursorial animals, the forelimbs are more structured to bearing the body weight, and it is the hindlimbs that move the animal forward.
	www.madsci.org /posts/archives/nov2000/973184145.Gb.r.html (735 words)

	Ocean Life: Mammals -Adaptation
		Sea lions use their forelimbs (hands) for locomotion on land and in the water.
		In the water, they use their forelimbs in a flapping manner similar to birds in flight.
		The hind limbs of sea otters are so much larger than the forelimbs that walking on land is clumsy and slow.
	www.onr.navy.mil /focus/ocean/life/mammals3.htm (302 words)

	Structural geology and regional geology
		In fold-and-thrust belts, anticlines that have steep to overturned forelimbs and are underlain by thrust faults are commonly interpreted to be fault-propagation folds.
		This interpretation is generally based only on a geometric similarity of these folds to popular models for fault-propagation folds, although geometry alone does not demonstrate that the folds meet the requirement that they formed during and as a result of propagation of a thrust fault up a ramp.
		Workers in fold-and-thrust belts commonly presume that anticlines with steep to overturned forelimbs that are underlain by thrust faults are fault-propagation folds.
	www.gi.alaska.edu /TSRG/People/Wallace/WKWabstracts.html (4155 words)

	Suspensory Desmitis - The Merck Veterinary Manual
		It is relatively common and affects both forelimbs and hindlimbs of horses of all ages.
		Forelimb lameness may be accentuated by flexion of the fetlock and interphalangeal joints but is generally unaffected by carpal flexion, whereas hindlimb lameness may be increased by flexion of the fetlock and interphalangeal joints or by flexion of the hock and stifle joints.
		Soreness on palpation of the forelimb suspensory ligament is quite common in horses with lameness associated with a more distal limb problem; however, only rarely is any structural abnormality of the ligaments identifiable ultrasonographically.
	www.merckvetmanual.com /mvm/htm/bc/90758.htm (626 words)

	(Meers) Forelimb Research (via CobWeb/3.1 planetlab2.cs.unc.edu) (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-06)
		With the exceptions of birds and humans, the forelimbs of virtually all tetrapods are surprisingly under studied, likely due to the prominent role played by the hindlimbs during locomotion.
		For instance, the anatomy of the forelimb of crocodylians is critical to understanding the function of the forelimbs in a variety of extinct Archosaurs, including pterosaurs and dinosaurs.
		As a result, the anatomy of the crocodylian forelimb is critical to understanding such questions as how flight evolved in pterosaurs and birds, or the function of the diminutive forelimb in large Theropod dinosaurs (such as T.
	utweb.utampa.edu.cob-web.org:8888 /faculty/mmeers/forelimbsiframe.html (167 words)

	Darwin \| American Museum of Natural History
		Humans, whales, bats, eagles, lizards, frogs and chimpanzees are very different types of animals that use their forelimbs in very different ways.
		But beneath the skin, the forelimb bones of these animals are startlingly similar.
		The forelimbs of chimpanzees are adapted for climbing trees, those of whales to support flippers for moving through water and those of bats to support membranous wings for flying.
	www.amnh.org /exhibitions/darwin/evolution/homologies.php (398 words)

	Untitled Document (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-06)
		The forelimbs of mammals are not identical because they have evolved to perform different functions.
		There was likely a certain degree of developmental constraint on the evolution of the various forelimbs of mammals because of the limitations in the phenotypic variability of the ancestral structure.
		Nonetheless, the variation that was present, coupled with mutation and selection, would be all that was necessary to generate the variety of mammalian forelimbs that perform different functions depending on the environmental conditions.
	faculty.evansville.edu /de3/evolutionweb2/anatomy.html (134 words)

	Functional Morphology & Biomechanics Laboratory -> Presentations -> Azizi, E., SICB, 2004
		The average contact interval of each forelimb is about 50% of the stride cycle and forelimbs have little temporal overlap in contact intervals.
		By quantifying the relative timing and frequency of limb and tail movements we found that unlike the terrestrial gaits of most salamanders, axial and appendicular movements are decoupled during aquatic walking.
		Finally by comparing axial wavespeed, Froude effieciency, and distance traveled per tail-beat during swimming (forelimbs not used) and aquatic walking (forelimbs used) we conclude that the reduced forelimbs of S.
	www.brown.edu /Departments/EEB/brainerd_lab/azizi-sicb-2004.php (268 words)

	Bills
		They must commit their forelimbs almost entirely to that enterprise.
		As a result the bill often must assume responsibility for diverse functions for which many mammals use their forelimbs -- grasping, carrying, scratching, fighting, and digging.
		The bill (or "beak") consists of the upper and lower jaws (mandibles), ensheathed in a layer of toughened skin.
	www.stanford.edu /group/stanfordbirds/text/essays/Bills.html (1092 words)

	John Hawks Anthropology Weblog : Forelimbs and climbing in early hominids
		Compared to their small body mass, the forelimbs of early hominids are both longer and more muscular than those of recent humans.
		The most probable interpretation for the strength of the forelimbs among these sites is that early hominids were effective climbers.
		The difference in forelimb anatomy between large and small individuals may mean either that males climbed more frequently than females or that the biomechanics of climbing among malesÑwith a mass much larger than femalesÑplaced much greater muscle requirements on the male forearm.
	johnhawks.net /weblog/fossils/afarensis/forelimbs_climbing_afarensis.html (688 words)

	Globe: Limb Development
		The deformed chicks - whose forelimbs bend like legs, have claws like toes, and lack the feathers of wings - are never permitted to hatch.
		Discovered in mice, these genes are shared by all tested vertebrates, ranging from humans to fish, and may well define limb identity in all these species, whether the ''limb'' involved is an arm, leg, wing, or fin.
		The question of what makes forelimbs and hindlimbs different was among the fundamental mysteries in developmental biology, and until recently, no one had a clue.
	www.nasw.org /users/karin/globe1.html (1344 words)

	Multiple roles of mesenchymal {beta}-catenin during murine limb patterning -- Hill et al. 133 (7): 1219 -- Development
		forelimbs, corresponding to notches in the AER (F').
		The temporal occurrence of apoptosis increase in the mesenchyme
		forelimbs, primarily in regions adjacent to the remnants of
	dev.biologists.org /cgi/content/full/133/7/1219 (6678 words)

	Greater Siren
		Sirens are fairly nondescript, having a general drab appearance, olive to fl in color with or without other markings.
		The designation "lesser" comes from the fact that most Siren intermedia are less than 2 feet long (total length), in contrast to the "greater" sirens, which are known to exceed 3 feet in length.
		For discriminating between the two species, authorities suggest counting costal grooves (external grooves along the sides of the animal in between forelimbs and the vent, which correspond roughly to the number of ribs.
	www.uga.edu /~srelherp/salamanders/sirlac.htm (308 words)

	A Marsupial With a Spring in Its Step - Jehovah's Witnesses Official Web Site
		Their tail and short forelimbs become a tripod that supports their weight as they lift their hind legs forward.
		John, mentioned at the outset, had two dogs that were almost drowned by a wild buck kangaroo when it took them on in a small reservoir on his family's property.
		Yet, thanks to its precociously developed forelimbs equipped with claws and its sense of smell, the tiny "worm" crawls instinctively through its mother's fur and up into her pouch.
	watchtower.org /e/20000408/article_01.htm (1555 words)

	Sea Turtle Biology
		1) Sea turtles have hypertrophied bones within their forelimbs compared to their hindlimbs, because the forelimbs are more important for propelling the turtle during swimming.
		6) The upstroke of the forelimbs in sea turtles provides the drag based locomotive force which is most responsible for propelling the turtle forwards in the water.
		7) The overall angle of movement of the forelimbs of sea turtles during the powerstroke, results in a positioning of the limb more forward at the end of the upstroke than at the beginning of the upstroke.
	www.coastal.edu /science/marine/msci302/487/487ex3.htm (408 words)

	A Comparative Molecular Analysis of Developing Mouse Forelimbs and Hindlimbs Using Serial Analysis of Gene Expression ... (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-06)
		SAGE was performed to obtain quantitative gene expression profiles from developing mouse forelimbs and hindlimbs.
		Figure 1 depicts the overall distribution of gene expression between the forelimb and hindlimb SAGE libraries, relative to
		For example, 407 tags were observed two times or more in the forelimb and not observed in either the hindlimb or pooled, nonlimb SAGE libraries.
	www.genome.org /cgi/content/full/11/10/1686 (7349 words)

	LiveScience.com - First Delta-Wing Fighter Was a Reptile
		Splayed out, the creature would have looked roughly like a drawing of a two-tiered Christmas tree, with a small triangular membrane on top attached to its forelimbs, and a larger one stretched out across its hind limbs.
		Pitch is the up and down orientation of an aircraft during flight: A plane pitches up to climb and down to dive.
		It would have glided in an almost upright position, and its forelimbs would have been relatively free to grab small animals or things from trees.
	www.livescience.com /animalworld/060718_delta_wing.html (617 words)

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