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Topic: Formal theories

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	Gamasutra - Features "GDC 2002: Beyond Psychological Theory: Getting Data that Improves Games"
		Formal theories of psychology have been subjected to rigorous testing to see when they map onto reality, and when they do not.
		In order for a theory of psychology to gain any kind of acceptance, the advocates have to have battled with some success against peers who are actively attempting to show it to be incorrect or limited.
		But while theories of psychology from academia can be quite useful as a lens to examine your game, their limitation is that they are typically too abstract to provide concrete action items at the level designers need.
	www.gamasutra.com /gdc2002/features/fulton/fulton_01.htm (1558 words)

	CS118 2000S: Lecture for Class 15 (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-08)
		All formal theories rest on the ability to parse the input language.
		A typical theory is described in terms of the AST (abstract syntax tree) of the source program.
		Most formal theories are based on the idea of input/output mapping.
	www.cs.dartmouth.edu /~mckeeman/2001/cs118/lectures/20000516.html (293 words)

	[No title]
		But if we insist that a formal theory should be the formalization of some informal theory, then a formal theory may be said to be ‘refuted’ if one of its theorems is negated by the corresponding theorem of the informal theory.
		Not all formal theories are in equal danger of heuristic refutation in a given period.
		Are invalid theories beneath contempt?Can they be appraised only if a posthumous reconstruction has saved them and proved them to be, if not respectable, at least excusable ancestors of respectable theories which look consistent and rigorous by the standards of the day?” So Lakatos’s criticism of an exclusive focus on rigour extends to the past.
	philsci-archive.pitt.edu /archive/00000286/00/lakps.doc (10116 words)

	Computational Esthetics (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-08)
		Formal theories which compute the "beauty coefficient" of visual patterns, fail to do justice to the complexity of the esthetic experience.
		That existing formal theories only account for caricatures of the beautiful, is thus not a sufficient reason to dismiss them altogether.
		This formalizes the Prägnanz-principle: the preferred recoding of an input pattern is simply the shortes recoding, and the perceived Gestalt is the gestalt corresponding to that recoding.
	iaaa.nl /rs/compestE.html (4000 words)

	Tackling
		According to this new conception of formal logic, the logic of subject and predicate propositions and states of affairs, which deals with what might be stated about objects in general from a possible perspective, is found in the lowest layer.
		The general theory of the manifolds, or science of theory forms, is a field of free, creative investigation made possible once the form of the mathematical system was emancipated from its content.
		According to his theory of manifolds, one could operate freely within a manifold with imaginary concepts and be sure that what one deduced was correct when the axiomatic system completely and unequivocally determined the body of all the configurations possible in a domain by a purely analytical procedure.
	perso.wanadoo.fr /rancho.pancho/Tackling.htm (8779 words)

	Theory and Opposed-Systems Design
		These theories and the policies they serve deal with a future that is long compared to the models and choices in traditional operational research, which aims at proximate goals for forces substantially fixed in size and composition.
		Realist geopolitical theories of the balance of power have been useful in calling our attention to the interests and aims of nation states and the way such interests might be realized or bounded by their relative military strengths.
		Balance-of-power theories have come in for a flood of criticism, much of it centering on the term "balance."[18] While the many ambiguities in the notion of equilibrium used in such theories are worth pointing out, I do not think that they are very hard to clarify and correct.
	www.rand.org /publications/classics/wohlstetter/DL16001.1/DL16001.1.html (13107 words)

	Research Project
		However, unlike object-oriented languages, the current expressive type theories (with inductive types and module mechanisms) do not provide effective means such as subtyping to support direct inheritance and reuse of developed formal theories and proofs, and experience of large development has shown that further development is needed to solve this problem.
		The project focuses on further development of expressive type theory by introducing suitable subtyping mechanisms to provide more powerful ways of reasoning such as inheritance of proof principles, and studying how subtyping can be combined with existing inductive types and module mechanisms to support direct inheritance of formal theories and proofs.
		We expect the subtyping theory and the associated inheritance methods to lead to new techniques for effective proof development and to make contributions of long-term importance to the theory and practice of interactive theorem proving.
	www.dur.ac.uk /CARG/sir.html (647 words)

	[No title]
		So while theories of psychology from academia can be quite useful as a lens to examine your game, their limitation is that they are typically too abstract to provide concrete action items at the level of specificity that designers need.
		Theory may help designers begin to ask the more pertinent questions, but no theory will tell you exactly how often a player should level up in 3 hours of play in a particular RPG games.
		Beyond Theory: the value of collecting data with psychological methods So I've argued that the psychological theories (both intuitive and academic) have limitations that prevent them from being either trustable or sufficiently detailed.
	download.microsoft.com /download/3/3/c/33c82055-c4bc-4354-bb1b-24358a950937/mgsut_F02.doc.doc (3665 words)

	Formal self-reference in artificial intelligence
		The formal hypothesis of the research is that, besides reflexive theories, it is possible to define and implement, as a reflexive meta-circular interpreter, reflexive progressions of such theories, in which the operator which produces the progression takes into account its own effects.
		If the formal reflection which is manifested by reflexive theories of Gödel's kind is not sufficient as a model of the reflection of consciousness, a better approximation would be a reflexive progression of reflexive theories.
		Such reflexive progressions of reflexive theories could be a better model of the kind of reflection which is peculiar to consciousness and which is usually considered to surpass the reflexivity of reflexive formal theories.
	nl.ijs.si /~damjan/fs-ai.html (930 words)

	ESL MiniConference / April 2002 / Questioning the Relevance of Second Language Acquisition Theories
		Theory is important, but I have rarely seen linguistics or second language acquisition theories to be helpful in teaching ESL.
		Using these theories to teach a second language is like trying to determine what software was used in printing out a document by looking at the document instead of the code.
		This is not to denigrate linguistic or SLA theories.
	www.eslminiconf.net /april/story3.html (513 words)

	Intuitionistic Logic
		Formal systems for intuitionistic propositional and predicate logic and arithmetic were developed by Heyting [1930], Gentzen [1935] and Kleene [1952].
		Formalized intuitionistic logic is naturally motivated by the informal Brouwer-Heyting-Kolmogorov explication of intuitionistic truth, outlined in Section 2 of the article on Constructive Mathematics in this Encyclopedia.
		Kleene's [1969] formalizes the theory of partial recursive functionals, enabling precise formalizations of the function-realizability interpretation used in [1965] and of a related q-realizability interpretation which gives the Church-Kleene Rule for intuitionistic analysis.
	plato.stanford.edu /entries/logic-intuitionistic (6042 words)

	A ``Grand Challenge'': Unifying Theories of Formal Methods - Integrating Formal Methods -
		Formal methods have been established as the rigorous engineering methodology for the system development.
		Applying formal methods may involve the modelling of different aspects of a system that are expressed through different paradigms.
		The set of axioms and inference rules upon which the formal description of the models are based, as well as the possible lemmas, propostions and theorems derived from those axioms and deduction rules, form a theory.
	www2.imm.dtu.dk /~db/formal-methods/challenges/utopia (3841 words)

	GECKIES : GPTheory (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-08)
		The main consequence of this lack of theories is that, although GP has been succesfully used in numerous and diverse applications, its application and configuration remains being an art more than a science.
		This theory is based in John Holland's Schema theory for GA. This theory claims that the search process in GP takes place at multiple hierarchical levels.
		In any case, what is true is that Schema Theories give us a rather magical view of the dynamics of GP and their validity and application is still a subject of debate.
	geckies.user.cis.ksu.edu /tiki-index.php?page=GPTheory (1027 words)

	A Wider Role
		The ability to determine the logical consequences of a formally specified theory not only saves expensive field studies but yields a more precise representation of the current hypotheses of the field.
		Looking to the more distant future, we see that the use of formal methods to study major disciplines may be the most significant intellectual application of AD technology, for it can encompass most of human intellectual endeavors.
		It may be true that traditional formal theories can be viewed only as approximations for the real world in most settings, but, as Musuch's note is telling us, they are still of great importance when complex domains are under study.
	www.cs.duke.edu /AutoDedFD/report/node16.html (656 words)

	Reinterpreting Memetics in a Multi-Level View ... Part I
		Theories are seen as syntheses of measurements and the consequent perceptions of form that an observer is capable of.
		For instance, memetic theories typically consider limited characterisations of emotional events as brands of mental event, but their actual biological basis--as brain processes that are not consciously accessible--is assumed irrelevant, and not considered.
		The basis for formal models in memetics concerns the representational aspect of ideas, and is often understood in terms of the "functionalism" commonly found in the social sciences.
	math.bu.edu /people/rclewley/meme1.html (10718 words)

	PSC 796, Formal Theories of Choice
		As we will be studying it, game theory is about developing a good model for a given real-world situation and applying the appropriate technique ("equilibrium concept") to the model to generate solutions, which in turn are used to generate predictions of real-world behavior.
		Spatial voting theory is two things: a variety of cooperative game theory used in the study of voting in committees, and a variety of noncooperative game theory coupled with a theory of voting behavior used in the study of electoral competition.
		The directional theory of voting assumes that voters are concerned not only with distance between their ideal points and the candidates’ positions, but also with the direction of that distance.
	www.maxwell.syr.edu /maxpages/faculty/sherman/psc796.html (4422 words)

	Citations: Formal Theories of the Commonsense World - Hobbs, Moore (ResearchIndex) (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-08)
		These schemes are theoretically attractive and expressively powerful, but the machinery is heavy and difficult for the novice to deal with, and few empirical studies are available as to the actual performance of these....
		Each one of a large variety of slightly distinct aggregates of mole2 The theory of fiat boundaries is thus a contribution to the formal theory of the common sense world of the sort set out in
		Moore, A formal theory of knowledge and action, Formal Theories of the Commonsense World (J. Hobbs and R. Moore, eds.), Ablex Publishing Corp., 1985.
	citeseer.ist.psu.edu /context/283029/0 (2134 words)

	Piero Scaruffi's Course on Consciousness
		In order to develop this theme, the course will deal with the theory of evolution, the essence of life, intelligent machines, the neurophysiology of the brain and a multitude of exciting new theories that border on several different disciplines, from psychology to physics.
		The wealth of scientific data and theories will stimulate the student to meditate about the ultimate meaning of our being and about what (and who) we are.
		The most recent theories of consciousness are based either on discoveries of how the brain works or on speculation on quantum theory.
	www.thymos.com /ucb.html (1696 words)

	OBJECTIONS
		Probably much of the attractiveness of formal theories comes from the feeling of surety that accompanies the simple decisions of whether a form is like or unlike another.
		However, workers using such theories are unable to counter the suggestion that as long as the subject in some way comes to understand the experimental situation that he is in, in the same way as the experimenter, e.g.
		It is the inability of any mechanical, formal theory to encompass the so-called "transitional" behaviour - which is ignored as irrelevant for the purposes of the experiment - that is the important point.
	pubpages.unh.edu /~jds/OBJECTIONS.htm (8649 words)

	Linguistics LNGS3004 - Modern Formal Theories of Grammar
		Modern syntactic theories have tried to develop increasingly precise models of what native speakers know about the structure of the languages they speak (and sometimes, onward to how that knowledge is used in language production and perception).
		The course will be a general introduction to the theory, and will discuss the formalisms and notations underlying the theory, but we will spend most of the time considering questions of syntax in diverse languages of the world, and their possible treatment in LFG.
		Written for Optimality Theory: Phonology, Syntax and Acquisition, edited by Joost Dekkers, Frank van der Leeuw and Jeroen van de Weijer, to be published by Oxford University Press.
	www-nlp.stanford.edu /~manning/courses/lfg (1110 words)

	Formal theories (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-08)
		In order to specify a formal theory, one first chooses a small collection of predicates which are regarded as basic for a given field of study.
		A formal theory is this structure of primitives, axioms, and theorems.
		The process of codifying a scientific discipline by means of primitives and axioms in the predicate calculus is known as formalization.
	www.math.psu.edu /simpson/papers/philmath/node11.html (404 words)

	LILaC - Research Programme (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-08)
		LILaC investigates formal models of interaction, where interaction is understood as involving both physical and linguistic actions (alias speech acts).
		a theory of mental states (epistemic logic, logic of intention);
		theories about the structure of interaction: game theory, argumentation theory, formal theories of discourse (DRT, SDRT).
	www.irit.fr /ACTIVITES/LILaC/Topics (91 words)

	Formal Analysis, Theory and Algorithms Research Group (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-08)
		The group is especially interested in bringing the clarity and insight of formal theories to hard application problems of real practical significance.
		We also develop new formal theories and tools to meet the challenges of these, and other, problem areas.
		Many of our projects are collaborative, and aim specifically to apply formal ideas to problems of genuine interest outside the formal community itself.
	www.dcs.gla.ac.uk /research/fata (199 words)

	Gottlob Frege [Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy] (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-08)
		His theory of meaning, especially his distinction between the sense and reference of linguistic expressions, was groundbreaking in semantics and the philosophy of language.
		Frege's influential theory of meaning, the theory of sense (Sinn) and reference (Bedeutung) was first outlined, albeit briefly, in his article, "Funktion und Begriff" of 1891, and was expanded and explained in greater detail in perhaps his most famous work, "Über Sinn und Bedeutung" of 1892.
		In the wake of Russell's theory of descriptions, a Fregean sense is often interpreted as a set of descriptive information or criteria that picks out its reference in virtue of the reference alone satisfying or fitting that descriptive information.
	www.iep.utm.edu /f/frege.htm (9562 words)

	The Mathematics and Mechanics of Relating Formal Theories (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-08)
		These lectures sketch a formalization of several theorems from automata theory in two distinct formal theories.
		One theory is a constructive type theory (representative of Alf, Coq and Nuprl), and the other is a classical set theory (representative of ZF, or BG or the set theory of Mizar).
		If time permits there will be a discussion of formalizing Aczel's embedding of a constructive fragment of the set theory into the type theory.
	www.nuprl.org /html/Marktoberdorf.html (224 words)

	Cogprints - Neuropragmatics: neuropsychological constraints on formal theories of dialogue (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-08)
		Bara, Bruno G. and Tirassa, Maurizio and Zettin, Marina (1997) Neuropragmatics: neuropsychological constraints on formal theories of dialogue.
		We are interested in the validation of a cognitive theory of human communication, grounded in a speech acts perspective.
		The theory we refer to is outlined, and a number of predictions are drawn from it.
	cogprints.org /3583 (1376 words)

	Stanford Sociolinguistics Web Page
		Drawing on examples collected from real life, from literature, and from the intuitive judgements of native speakers, we proposed a new optimality theory analysis of this construction, one of the central features of AAVE.
		While historical linguists have explored the conditions for and the causes of semantic change, sociolinguists have developed theories to account for the pejoration of social category labels.
		Since they study changes that took place in the past, they are unable to capture the social contexts and the discourse conditions in which changes occurred.
	www.stanford.edu /dept/linguistics/socio/sociovariation.shtml (1899 words)

	[No title]
		.05 DimensionParenting ExperienceCoaching ExperiencePre-Courset(99)Pre-Courset(99)No n=90Yes n=11No n=82Yes n=19Authenticity2.202.18.9612.152.42-0.93Explanatory Power2.102.09.9812.052.32-0.88Complexity2.001.91.8131.942.21-0.89Consistency with Formal Theory2.241.82.2292.232.05 0.63 Change scores for each of the dimensions were calculated by subtracting pre-course scores from post-scores.
		Differences in pre and post scores were determined through the use of paired sample t-tests.
		Statistically significant differences were found between pre and post-course implicit theories for all dimensions.
	www.cedu.niu.edu /~smith/Conferences/2004/AERA04paper.doc (149 words)

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