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	Fred Lawrence Whipple - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		Fred Lawrence Whipple (November 5, 1906–August 30, 2004) was an American astronomer.
		Fred Lawrence Whipple, the son of a farmer, was born November 5, 1906, in Red Oak, Iowa.
		Whipple studied at Occidental College in southern California, then majored in mathematics at the University of California at Los Angeles.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Fred_Whipple (383 words)

	Fred Whipple, revolutionized comet theory
		Whipple proposed the theory in 1950, saying that comets consisted of ice with some rock mixed in, rather than sand held together by gravity, as was widely believed.
		Whipple's theory was an attempt to explain why some comets seemed to arrive at destinations earlier or later than predicted.
		Whipple was born in Red Oak, Iowa, in 1906.
	www.suntimes.com /output/obituaries/cst-nws-xwhipple01.html (240 words)

	Fred L. Whipple; expert on comets; 97 \| The San Diego Union-Tribune
		Fred L. Whipple, originator of the idea that comets consist of ice with some rock mixed in, died Monday at a hospital in Cambridge, Mass.
		Whipple proposed his "dirty snowball" theory in 1950, diverging from the popular belief then that comets were balls of sand held together by gravity, to explain why some periodic comets seemed to be pulled along by more than the force of gravity, arriving sooner or later than predicted.
		Whipple also was director of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory in Cambridge from 1955-73, which then was merged with the Harvard Observatory and renamed the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics.
	www.signonsandiego.com /uniontrib/20040901/news_1m1whipple.html (638 words)

	Guardian \| Fred Whipple
		Whipple developed these ideas, eventually explaining slight variations of cometary orbits through the propulsive forces of outgassing jets at the surface of the nucleus (actually seen by spacecraft Giotto), confirming the "tail" as a product of the solar wind and attributing the short survival of near-sun comets to their icy structure.
		B orn of country stock in Red Oak, Iowa, Whipple spent the first 15 years of his life on a farm but, because of his special abilities, was taken by his parents to California, where got a degree in mathematics at the University of California at Los Angeles.
		In spite of his scientific rigour, Whipple's huge enthusiasm for space flight and for science fiction did not always endear him to more conventional astronomers, yet, toward the end of his life, he was able to declare himself delighted to have lived through a period during which science fiction had, in many respects, become reality.
	www.guardian.co.uk /print/0,3858,5006386-113162,00.html (1076 words)

	Boston.com / News / Local / Mass. / Fred L. Whipple, pioneer in comet research, dead at 97 (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-21)
		Fred L. Whipple, a pioneer in astronomy who proposed the "dirty snowball" theory for the substance of comets, has died.
		Whipple was director of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory in Cambridge from 1955 to 1973, when it merged with the Harvard Observatory and was renamed the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics.
		Whipple retired from Harvard in 1977, although he continued to bicycle to the center six days a week until he was 90.
	www.boston.com /news/local/massachusetts/articles/2004/08/31/fred_l_whipple_pioneer_in_comet_researched_dead_at_97 (523 words)

	Fred Whipple (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-21)
		Whipple was the author of several books on astronomy, and in the early 1950s, he co-wrote a series of popular articles for Collier's magazine with Wernher von Braun that helped spark the U.S. involvement in space exploration.
		In 1950, Whipple proposed the "icy conglomerate" ("dirty snowball") cometary model, in which he suggested comets have icy cores surrounded by thin, insulating cores of dust and rocky particles, and that jets of material ejected as the result of solar heating can change a comet's orbit.
		Whipple's model was confirmed by observations of spacecraft that flew by Halley's Comet in 1986.
	www.aaa.org /aaaeye0410art7.htm (465 words)

	Fred L. Whipple, 97, Dies; Comet Research Pioneer (washingtonpost.com)
		When Dr. Whipple entered the field in the early 1930s, comets were variously believed to be loose collections of dust held together by gravity; the discharge from volcanic eruptions on distant planets; or the product of mysterious phenomena that might spew from the excited mind of a pulp science fiction writer.
		Fred Lawrence Whipple, the son of a farmer, was born Nov. 5, 1906, in Red Oak, Iowa.
		Whipple was a key voice during the race to build artificial satellites to coincide with the International Geophysical Year of 1957 to 1958.
	www.washingtonpost.com /wp-dyn/articles/A51150-2004Aug31.html (1022 words)

	Whipple, Fred Lawrence (1906-2004)
		Whipple graduated from the University of California at Los Angeles, and then helped compute the first orbit of newly-discovered Pluto while a graduate student under Armin Leuschner at the University of California at Berkeley.
		Whipple worked at Harvard University from 1931 to 1977, and directed the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory from 1955 to 1973.
		The Whipple Observatory is named after him, as is the spacecraft component known as a Whipple shield.
	www.daviddarling.info /encyclopedia/W/Whipple.html (328 words)

	Astronomer Fred Whipple dies - World - www.smh.com.au
		Fred Whipple, a pioneer in astronomy who proposed the "dirty snowball" theory for the substance of comets, has died.
		Whipple was director of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory in Cambridge from 1955 to 1973, when it merged with the Harvard Observatory and was renamed the Harvard-Smithsonian Centre for Astrophysics.
		Whipple retired from Harvard in 1977, although he continued to bicycle to the centre six days a week until he was 90.
	www.smh.com.au /articles/2004/09/01/1093939003204.html?oneclick=true (488 words)

	Fred Lawrence Whipple -- Facts, Info, and Encyclopedia article (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-21)
		Fred Lawrence Whipple (November 5, 1906–August 30, 2004) was an American (A physicist who studies astronomy) astronomer.
		He is best known for writing an influential paper in Astrophysical Journal in 1950, in which he proposed the now-confirmed "dirty snowball" theory of ((astronomy) a relatively small extraterrestrial body consisting of a frozen mass that travels around the sun in a highly elliptical orbit) comet composition (although he originally used the term "icy conglomerate").
		Asteroid 1940 Whipple is named after him, as is the Whipple Observatory on (Click link for more info and facts about Mount Hopkins) Mount Hopkins in (A state in southwestern United States; site of the Grand Canyon) Arizona.
	www.absoluteastronomy.com /encyclopedia/f/fr/fred_lawrence_whipple.htm (416 words)

	BBC NEWS \| Science/Nature \| Comet pioneer Fred Whipple dies
		Fred Whipple began work at the Harvard College Observatory in 1931 and from 1955 to 1973 directed the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, helping it to become the renowned Harvard Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics.
		Whipple's model allowed the so-called nongravitational forces acting on comets to be understood.
		Whipple also made contributions in fields as diverse as variable stars, galaxies, stellar evolution, supernovas, the interstellar medium, radio astronomy and astronomical instrumentation.
	news.bbc.co.uk /2/hi/science/nature/3614064.stm (542 words)

	Harvard Gazette: Whipple, world-renowned astronomer, dies
		Whipple was particularly proud of this invention, for which President Truman awarded him a Certificate of Merit in 1948.
		While Whipple and a handful of other scientists had the foresight to envision the era of artificial satellites, only Whipple had both the imagination and the managerial skill to organize a worldwide network of amateur astronomers to track these then hypothetical objects and to determine their orbits.
		Whipple and some of his staff were even featured on the cover of Life magazine for their satellite tracking prowess.
	www.news.harvard.edu /gazette/2004/09.16/10-whippleobit.html (777 words)

	Fred Whipple, 1906-2004 (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-21)
		Whipple was the author of several books on astronomy, and in the early 1950s he co-wrote a series of popular articles for Collier's magazine with Wernher von Braun that helped spark the U.S. involve-ment in space exploration.
		Later, Whipple helped the SAO to develop a camera-based satellite tracking system; it was so accurate that astronomers were able to determine the exact shape of Earth through examining its effects on satellite orbits.
		Whipple’s comet work continued nearly until his death; from 1999-2002, Whipple was involved in NASA’s ill-fated Contour mission; designed to visit two comets, it instead broke apart after launch.
	home.earthlink.net /~tonyhoffman/fredwhipple.htm (495 words)

	Whipple's Flying Sandbank :: Astrobiology Magazine :: Search for Life in the Universe
		Fred Lawrence Whipple, the oldest living American astronomer and one of the last giants of 20th century astronomy, passed away yesterday at the age of 97 following a prolonged illness.
		Whipple's change of concept from the generally accepted "flying sandbank" model was "one of the most important contributions to solar system studies in the 20th century," says Dr. Brian Marsden, director of the Minor Planet Center located at SAO.
		Whipple was part of the group that initiated a novel and low-cost approach to building large telescopes first realized in the construction of the Multiple Mirror Telescope, a joint project of SAO and the University of Arizona.
	www.astrobio.net /news/article1166.html (958 words)

	Cornell News: Whipple Joins Science Team
		Whipple is the oldest researcher ever to accept an active role in a NASA space science mission.
		Whipple then headed east to Harvard, where his first job was to inspect sky survey photographic plates, making sure the telescopic camera was accurate.
		In 1955, Whipple became the director of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory (SAO), in a small headquarters behind the Smithsonian Castle in Washington, D.C., and helped move the SAO to its present location in Cambridge, Mass.
	www.news.cornell.edu /releases/July99/Whipple.bpf.html (749 words)

	Fred Lawrence Whipple biography (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-21)
		Fred L. Whipple was born in Red Oak, Iowa, on November 5, 1906.
		He also showed that meteors are extremely fragile bodies that have their origins in comets, not asteroids, and, his most important insight, that the nuclei of comets are icy cores covered by thin insulating layers of dirt.
		Whipple also made noteworthy contributions to the institutional growth of American geophysics, as well as to instrument development and the popularization of the Earth sciences.
	www.agu.org /inside/awards/whipple.html (523 words)

	ipedia.com: Fred Lawrence Whipple Article (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-21)
		Whipple coined the term "dirty snowball" as part of his now-confirmed theory of comet composition, which he wrote about in an influential paper in Astr...
		Fred Lawrence Whipple (born November 5, 1906) is an American astronomer.
		Whipple coined the term "dirty snowball" as part of his now-confirmed theory of comet composition, which he wrote about in an influential paper in Astrophysical Journal in 1950.
	www.ipedia.com /fred_lawrence_whipple.html (192 words)

	AIP International Catalog of Sources (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-21)
		Fred Lawrence Whipple (1906-), an astronomer, received the B.A. from the University of California at Los Angeles in 1927, and the Ph.D. from the University of California at Berkeley in 1931.
		Whipple is internationally recognized for his research on the moon, meteors, and comets.
		The papers of Fred Lawrence Whipple document his astronomical research; his professional work in the field of astronomy; his career as Director of the SAO; and, to a lesser extent, his activities as a faculty member of Harvard University.
	www.aip.org /history/catalog/5968.html (425 words)

	'Dirty snowball' on the money - Obituaries - www.smh.com.au
		Dr Fred Whipple, who has died aged 97, was the originator of the idea that comets consist of ice with some rock mixed in.
		Whipple proposed his "dirty snowball" theory in 1950, diverging from the popular belief that comets were balls of sand held together by gravity, to explain why some periodic comets seemed to be pulled along by more than the force of gravity, arriving sooner or later than predicted.
		Whipple was also director of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory in Cambridge from 1955-73, which then merged with the Harvard Observatory and renamed the Harvard-Smithsonian Centre for Astrophysics.
	www.smh.com.au /articles/2004/09/03/1093939136972.html (750 words)

	Fred Whipple Bibliography
		Whipple, Fred L., “The Incentive of a Bold Hypothesis: Hyperbolic Meteors and Comets,”; Annals NY Acad Sci 198, 219-224 (1972).
		Whipple, Fred L., “On the Nature and Origin of Comets and their Contribution to Planets,” The Moon and Planets 19, 305-15 (1978).
		Whipple, Fred L., “The Forest and the Trees,” in Comets in the Post-Halley Era, R.L. Newburn, Jr., M. Neugebauer, and J. Rahe, eds.
	www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu /brucemedalists/Whipple/WhippleRefs.html (1031 words)

	The New Mexico Museum of Space History - Inductee - Fred L. Whipple (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-21)
		Fred Lawrence Whipple was born on November 5, 1906 in Red Oak, Iowa.
		Whipple was an instructor at Stanford University in 1929 and became a member of the Harvard College Observatory staff in 1931.
		In 1955, Whipple became the Director of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory (SAO).
	www.spacefame.org /whipple.html (259 words)

	News Article: Fred Whipple (1907-2004), Erice Meeting & Tunguska (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-21)
		Following are 3 articles on Fred Whipple, who has just died at the age of 97; also Clark Chapman on the Erice meeting on Planetary Emergencies, and Leon Jaroff on Tunguska silliness.
		Dubbed "the Whipple shield," these bumpers are thin layers of metal that are placed a few inches out from the spacecraft's hull and they absorb most of an impact of the striking junk.
		Whipples work on tracking artificial satellites led to improved knowledge of the shape of the earth and greatly improved positions on earth.
	nai.arc.nasa.gov /impact/news_detail.cfm?ID=150 (2840 words)

	CNN.com - Dr. Comet, 95, still hunting space ice boulders - July 4, 2002
		Whipple, 95, is a member of the Comet Nucleus Tour (Contour) science team, which just sent an unmanned spacecraft on its way to close encounters with two or more comets.
		"Fred is the most venerable cometary scientist in the world," Contour lead scientist Joseph Veverka said when Whipple joined the project.
		Whipple originated the term "dirty snowballs" to describe the combination of water ice and debris that make up comets.
	archives.cnn.com /2002/TECH/space/07/04/comet.scientist (590 words)

	Boston.com / News / Education / Higher education / Fred Whipple; professor was leading authority on comets
		Fred Whipple; professor was leading authority on comets
		Fred Lawrence Whipple, considered the world's foremost authority on comets, died Monday in Cambridge.
		For more than seven decades, Dr. Whipple worked at Harvard University and the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, which he helped move to Cambridge from Washington, D.C. From his observations, his research, his inventions, and his enthusiasm for determining how things work, the picture of the heavens became much clearer to astronomers and lay folks alike.
	www.boston.com /news/education/higher/articles/2004/09/01/fred_whipple_professor_was_leading_authority_on_comets (487 words)

	JS Online: Deaths Elsewhere
		- Fred L. Whipple, a pioneer in astronomy who proposed the "dirty snowball" theory for the substance of comets, has died.
		In 1946, in anticipation of spaceflight, Whipple invented a thin outer skin of metal to protect spacecraft.
		Meteors disintegrated when they hit the shield, known as a meteor bumper or Whipple shield, leaving only vapor to hit the spacecraft.
	www.jsonline.com /news/nat/aug04/255407.asp?format=print (492 words)

	Record Unit 7431 - Fred Lawrence Whipple Papers, circa 1927-1983
		FRED L. This finding aid was digitized with funds generously provided by the Smithsonian Institution Women's Committee.
		Fred Lawrence Whipple (1906-), an astronomer, received his B.A. degree from the University of California at Los Angeles in 1927, and his Ph.D. from the University of California at Berkeley in 1931.
		Whipple was appointed director of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory (SAO) when it moved to Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1955.
	www.si.edu /archives/archives/findingaids/FARU7431.htm (1227 words)

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