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Topic: G2 phase

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G1 phase

Cell cycle

Mitosis

Meiosis

S phase

DNA polymerase

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	G2 phase - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		phase is a stage in the cell cycle, and is the final stage of interphase During Interphase the replicated chromosomes condense becoming short and thick.
		It follows successful completion of DNA synthesis and chromosomal replication in S phase, and occurs during a period of time - often four to five hours.
		In this phase, the cell prepares itself for mitosis, or M phase, initiated by prophase.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/G2_phase (204 words)

	Interphase
		phase can be slowed by reducing the nutrients available in a system - thus the cell will take longer to build up the resources necessary for cell division.
		This suggests that once the cell enters the S phase, it is committed to cell division, regardless of the external cell conditions.
		During this phase proteins, such as kinase (which catalyzes protein phosphorylation), which are necessary for cell division are synthesized at this time.
	library.thinkquest.org /C004535/interphase.html (287 words)

	G2 Checkpoint and Anticancer Therapy
		In late G2 phase of the cell cycle, cyclin B1 enters the nucleus, as nuclear localization of cyclin B1 is required during the G2/M transition.
		During the G2 phase of the cell cycle, inactive cyclin B1/Cdc2 complexes accumulate in mammalian cells due to inhibitory phosphorylation of Cdc2 on Thr-14 and Tyr-15 by the Wee1 and Myt1 kinases (Figure 1).
		Thus, cells in the G2 or M phases of the cell cycle become aneuploid regardless of p53 status in the presence of activated MYC; however, the loss of p53-dependent cell cycle checkpoints and p53-mediated apoptosis enhances the ability of MYC-overexpressing cells to progress through the cell cycle and become aneuploid.
	www.eurekah.com /pietenpol/index.html (12735 words)

	[No title] (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-10)
		Know the phases of the cell cycle G1 = first growth phase (Gap phase) — longest and most variable S = DNA synthesis G2 = second growth phase M = mitosis (prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase) and cytokinesis G0 = growth arrest 2.
		G2 checkpoint: The onset of the M-phase and the G2/M boundary that is regulated by cell mass, growth rate, periodicity, and DNA synthesis.
		Understand the role of MPF in controlling the G2 to M transition MPF = M-phase promoting factor, composed of Cdc2 and cyclin B. Inactive MPF = phosphorylated(Thr14, Tyr15) Cdc2 accumulates during S and G2 phases, preventing entry of cell into M-phase.
	www-personal.umich.edu /~spark/notes/M1/mcb501/20020114-mcb.doc (610 words)

	Human Cyclin A Is Required for Mitosis until Mid Prophase -- Furuno et al. 147 (2): 295 -- The Journal of Cell Biology
		HeLa cells were synchronized in G2 phase and injected with 2–4 µM cyclin A/CDK2 as in Figure 1 A. Representative DIC images are shown of a cell that does (A) and a cell that does not (B) fully condense its chromosomes at metaphase.
		G2 phase HeLa cells were injected or not with a final concentration of 2 µM p21N (filled circles, representing ~40-fold excess over cyclin A/CDK2), or p21N preincubated with cyclin A/CDK2K33R (open diamonds), or with GST (open squares) and their entry into mitosis followed by time-lapse microscopy.
		G2 phase HeLa cells were injected or not with a final concentration of 2 µM p21N and fixed and stained for immunofluorescence.
	www.jcb.org /cgi/content/full/147/2/295 (7044 words)

	SparkNotes: The Cell Cycle: Components of the Cell Cycle
		G1 is an intermediate phase occupying the time between the end of cell division in mitosis and the beginning of DNA replication during S phase.
		S phase, or synthesis, is the phase of the cell cycle when DNA packaged into chromosomes is replicated.
		Similar to G1, G2 is an intermediate phase, a time for the cell to ensure that it is ready to proceed in the cell cycle.
	www.sparknotes.com /biology/cellreproduction/cellcycle/section1.html (716 words)

	Cell cycle: Cycling is an E2Ffort - Cell Signaling Update - Signaling Gateway
		If an active mechanism that monitors, and maintains, the overall duration of the cell cycle is responsible for this regulation, then experimentally lengthening cell-cycle phases would similarly result in the maintenance, rather than the elongation, of the rate of cell division.
		The overall cell-cycle length was maintained by shortening G1 phase, an effect that is attributable to the increased amounts of CycE.
		Double labelling of wing-disc cells for E2F1 protein and for markers that are specific for different cell-cycle phases also showed that the level of E2F1 oscillates with the cell cycle —; it is present in G1, G2 and M phases but absent in S phase.
	www.signaling-gateway.org /update/updates/200406/nrm1408.html (660 words)

	S phase - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		The S phase, short for synthesis phase, is a period in the cell cycle during interphase, between G1 phase and the G2 phase.
		During S phase, the centrosome is also duplicated.
		Damage to DNA often takes place during this phase, and DNA repair is initiated following the completion of replication.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/S_phase (189 words)

	BioCarta - Charting Pathways of Life
		The G2/M DNA damage checkpoint prevents the cell from entering mitosis (M phase) if the genome is damaged.
		During G2 phase, Cdc2 is maintained in an inactive state by the kinases Wee1 and Mt1.
		As cells approach M phase, the phosphatase Cdc25 is activated, perhaps by the polo-kinase Pik1.
	www.biocarta.com /pathfiles/h_g2Pathway.asp (186 words)

	G2 checkpoint abrogators as anticancer drugs -- Kawabe 3 (4): 513 -- Molecular Cancer Therapeutics
		Human Chk1 expression is dispensable for somatic cell death and critical for sustaining G2 DNA damage checkpoint.
		Histone deacetylase inhibitors trigger a G2 checkpoint in normal cells that is defective in tumor cells.
		Inhibition of the G2 DNA damage checkpoint and of protein kinases Chk1 and Chk2 by the marine sponge alkaloid debromohymenialdisine.
	mct.aacrjournals.org /cgi/content/full/3/4/513 (4873 words)

	Reovirus-Induced {sigma}1s-Dependent G2/M Phase Cell Cycle Arrest Is Associated with Inhibition of p34cdc2 -- Poggioli ...
		Reovirus-Induced {sigma}1s-Dependent G2/M Phase Cell Cycle Arrest Is Associated with Inhibition of p34cdc2 -- Poggioli et al.
		Cyclin B expression varies with the phase of the cell cycle, with
		/M phase cell cycle arrest in a variety of target cells in vitro (55).
	jvi.asm.org /cgi/content/full/75/16/7429 (4112 words)

	Interactive Fly, Drosophila
		Cln-Cdc28 is the G1 phase cyclin-cyclin dependent kinase dimer in budding yeast Stability of the mitotic B-type cyclin Clb2 is tightly cell cycle-regulated.
		To understand the regulatory mechanisms for the cell cycle transition from M to S phase, dependence on Cdc2 inactivation of cell-cycle events occurring during the M-S transition period was examined using Xenopus egg extracts in which the extent of Cdc2 inactivation at M phase exit was quantitatively controlled.
		Thus, M phase exit and S phase entry are coordinately regulated by the Cdc2 activity level in the early embryonic cell cycle (Iwabuchi, 2002).
	www.sdbonline.org /fly/newgene/cdc2-2h.htm (3421 words)

	Replication-independent core histone dynamics at transcriptionally active loci in vivo -- Thiriet and Hayes 19 (6): 677 ...
		Incorporation of fluorescein-labeled dimers was carried out in G2 phase for 3 h, cell explants were squashed, fixed, and stained for acetylated H4 with antipenta-acetylated H4 peptide antibodies.
		Histones were introduced at the beginning of G2 phase, and cells harvested for ChIP 3 h later.
		Nucleosomes were labeled in vivo by incorporation of Flag-tagged histones at the beginning of S phase for 3 h; the cells were then washed, and the loss of labeled proteins from the chromatin of the indicated loci monitored by ChIP immediately (0) and 1.5 and 3 h after washing.
	www.genesdev.org /cgi/content/full/19/6/677 (4512 words)

	Human Parvovirus B19 Induces Cell Cycle Arrest at G2 Phase with Accumulation of Mitotic Cyclins -- Morita et al. 75 ...
		phase at 48 and 96 h postinfection (Fig.
		M phase (11, 17, 18, 25, 29, 30), we examined the
		Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Vpr-mediated G(2) cell cycle arrest: Vpr interferes with cell cycle signaling cascades by interacting with the B subunit of serine/threonine protein phosphatase 2A.
	jvi.asm.org /cgi/content/full/75/16/7555 (4813 words)

	b11.html
		The mitotic cell cycle is composed of the interphase and the M phase.
		The M phase is composed of the mitotic phases (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase) which divides the nucleus of the cell and cytokinesis which divides the cytoplasm.
		Duplicate the two pairs of chromosomes (each chromosome is double stranded (sister chromatid), and simulate S phase of the interphase.
	www.delta.edu /mmowlavi/interphase.html (641 words)

	A plant cyclin B2 is degraded early in mitosis and its ectopic expression shortens G2-phase and alleviates the ...
		in G2 phase by the expression of a dominant-negative mutant
		Root regeneration is inhibited by ectopic expression of CycB2-HA, which correlates with shortening of the G2 phase in leaf cells.
		Rosenblatt, J., Gu, Y. and Morgan, D. Human cyclin-dependent kinase 2 is activated during the S and G2 phases of the cell cycle and associates with cyclin A. Proc.
	jcs.biologists.org /cgi/content/full/116/3/487 (8290 words)

	Cellulose Synthesis Is Coupled to Cell Cycle Progression at G1 in the Dinoflagellate Crypthecodinium cohnii -- Kwok and ...
		DCB, there was a 2-h lag for the cells to enter S phase.
		B, During the S phase delay (T = 8 to T = 12), no significant (P < 0.05) differences were observed for the CFW intensities.
		phase, cellulose accumulated and thecal plates thickened (ii).
	www.plantphysiol.org /cgi/content/full/131/4/1681 (4726 words)

	The Schizosaccharomyces pombe S-Phase Checkpoint Differentiates Between Different Types of DNA Damage -- Rhind and ...
		Cells were irradiated with 400 Gy either in G1, between 0 and 2 hr, or G2, between 4 and 6 hr.
		The symbols are the same as in A, and closed circles represent the percent of G2 irradiated cells having completed mitosis.
		Asynchronous log phase cells, 80% of which are in G2, were used to represent G2 cells.
	www.genetics.org /cgi/content/full/149/4/1729 (5593 words)

	The Very Last Bio23 Lecture ñ Cell cycle and oncogenes
		This is where the decision point lies and the cell assesses its size and environment, and decides whether or not to start another cell cycle.
		G2 (gap) phase – growth, transcription, translation, check to see if DNA synthesis is complete.
		The cell in G1 phase can exit cell cycle and enter G0 stage, but the G0 stage cannot be entered from any other stage besides G1.
	www.dartmouth.edu /~bio23/lect20.html (1575 words)

	Competency in Mismatch Repair Prohibits Clonal Expansion of Cancer Cells Treated with ...
		G1 cell cycle phase was evident by 36 h.
		G2' represents the G2 phase of the initial cell population, G2''
		Our findings indicate that G2 arrest occurs after the first S phase, contrary to the other observations (23, 24, 25).
	www.jci.org /cgi/content/full/98/1/199 (5713 words)

	Mammalian Rad9 Plays a Role in Telomere Stability, S- and G2-Phase-Specific Cell Survival, and Homologous ...
		Human 293 cells in different phases were enriched by centrifugal elutriation (41).
		No difference in the levels of hRad9 was seen in different phases of the cell cycle.
		Dashed bars represent cells that enter into S phase postirradiation, and their percentage is determined by dividing the number of S-phase irradiated cells by the number of S-phase unirradiated cells.
	mcb.asm.org /cgi/content/full/26/5/1850 (8055 words)

	Methylxanthine Sensitization of Human Colon Cancer Cells to 186Re-Labeled Monoclonal Antibody -- Kinuya et al. 42 (4): ...
		of cells, because cells are radiosensitive in the G2 phase (23).
		Bracey TS, Williams AC, Paraskeva C. Inhibition of radiation-induced G2 delay potentiates cell death by apoptosis and/or the inhibition of giant cells in colorectal tumor cells with disrupted p53 functions.
		Phase I radioimmunotherapy trial with iodine-131-CC49 in metastatic colon cancer.
	jnm.snmjournals.org /cgi/content/full/42/4/596 (2458 words)

	Early G2/M checkpoint failure as a molecular mechanism underlying etoposide-induced chromosomal aberrations -- Nakada ...
		M phase cells were simultaneously stained with anti–phospho-histone H3 antibody and PI and were determined by flow cytometry.
		Dots representing M phase cells are enclosed within the rectangles.
		from the G2 to the postmitotic G1 phase in the presence of etoposide.
	www.jci.org /cgi/content/full/116/1/80 (6226 words)

	Cell-cycle control of the establishment of mating-type silencing in S. cerevisiae -- Lau et al. 16 (22): 2935 -- Genes ...
		We sought to identify the event between early and late M phase that accounted for the different levels of silencing we observed.
		Cells were arrested in G1 phase, and then raised to 37°C with the addition of methionine to repress SCC1/MCD1 transcription.
		The requirement for passage through M phase to establish silencing at HMR may be a consequence of a chromatin maturation process.
	www.genesdev.org /cgi/content/full/16/22/2935 (6138 words)

	Clostridium botulinum C2 Toxin Delays Entry into Mitosis and Activation of p34cdc2 Kinase and cdc25-C Phosphatase in ...
		histone H1 kinase and concommitantly the transition from G2 phase to mitosis in synchronized Hela cells.
		Epidermal growth factor inhibits transiently the progression from G2 phase to mitosis: a receptor-mediated phenomenon in various cells.
		Cyclin B expression in HeLa cells during the G2 block induced by ionizing radiation.
	iai.asm.org /cgi/content/full/67/10/5083 (5370 words)

	Histone Deacetylase Inhibitors Trigger a G2 Checkpoint in Normal Cells That Is Defective in Tumor Cells -- Qiu et al. ...
		Histone Deacetylase Inhibitors Trigger a G2 Checkpoint in Normal Cells That Is Defective in Tumor Cells -- Qiu et al.
		The absence of a G2 arrest and the consequent aberrant mitotic phenotype and increased sensitivity to killing by ABHA in the
		Rosenblatt, J., Gu, Y., and Morgan, D.O. Human cyclin-dependent kinase 2 is activated during the S and G2 phases of the cell cycle and associates with cyclin A. Proc.
	www.molbiolcell.org /cgi/content/full/11/6/2069 (7113 words)

	ATR Regulates a G2-Phase Cell-Cycle Checkpoint in Arabidopsis thaliana -- Culligan et al. 16 (5): 1091 -- THE PLANT CELL
		that G2 arrest is abrogated in response to
		that ATR is necessary for the G2 checkpoint in response to double-strand
		Chabouté, M.E., Clement, B., and Philipps, G. S phase and meristem-specific expression of the tobacco RNR1b gene is mediated by an E2F element located in the 5' leader sequence.
	www.plantcell.org /cgi/content/full/16/5/1091 (7482 words)

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