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	Why Einstein's Brain? by Marian Diamond
		What discovery led me to study the ratio of glial cells to neurons in Einstein's brain back in the early 1980s? The answer is not found in a single, simple statement but is based on decades of work on how the environment affects the anatomy of the brain.
		The dendrites and the cell body are the receptive component; the axon hillock is the integrative component, the axon is the conductile component and the axon terminal is the output or secretory component.
		Glial cells are the metabolic and structural support cells for the nerve cells.
	www.newhorizons.org /neuro/diamond_einstein.htm (1502 words)

	Glial cells in the optic lobe
		Glial Cells in the Optic Lobe of Drosophila melanogaster
		Genetically diverse populations of glial cells in the optic lobe of wild type adult Drosophila melanogaster were disclosed by the enhancer trap technique.
		The medulla neuropile glial cells (MNGl) are not arranged in a stereotypic pattern.
	web.neurobio.arizona.edu /Flybrain/html/poster/GliaPaper/Eckharts.html (1140 words)

	Glial Cells May Solve Barrier 070603 (Site not responding. Last check: )
		Glial cells, which are support cells to nerve cells, are found in all nerve tissue, such as the brain, the spinal cord and the retina.
		Chen hypothesized that glial cells might form the same type of scar in response to the injection of transplanted tissue and that the scar might act as a barrier to transplant survival.
		In the mice with normal glial cells, Chen and her colleagues found that the transplanted green cells remained near the injection site, did not grow or migrate to other area of the retina, and did not grow the nerve tentacles (axons and dendrites) necessary to wire up to the host retinas and the optic nerve.
	www.schepens.harvard.edu /glial_cells_may_solve_barrier_070603.htm (989 words)

	The Glial Cell
		Apart from the nerve cell (also known as a neuron), there is a second type of cell found in the human nervous system: a glial cell.
		In the average brain the number of glial cells is far greater than the number of neurons (neurons number 100 billion and there are anywhere from ten to fifty times more glial cells than that).
		Perhaps the most familiar example of a glial cell is the myelin sheath, a fatty substance that wraps around neuron axons to facilitate signal transduction.
	www.iscid.org /encyclopedia/The_Glial_Cell (223 words)

	Glial cell - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		Glial cells, commonly called neuroglia or simply glia, are non-neuronal cells that provide support and nutrition, maintain homeostasis, form myelin, and participate in signal transmission in the nervous system.
		Oligodendrocytes are cells that coat axons in the central nervous system (CNS) with their cell membrane, called myelin, producing the so-called myelin sheath.
		In the retina, the radial Müller cell is the principal glial cell, and participates in a bidirectional communication with neurons.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Glial_cell (1354 words)

	Glial Cells May Solve Barrier 070603 (Site not responding. Last check: )
		Because retinal cells, similar to those in the brain, are unable to regenerate themselves after injury, for many years, scientists have attempted to transplant cells or tissue into eyes to replace or regenerate retinas damaged by injury or disease, using donor retina, brain, and stem cells as transplants.
		Glial cells, which are support cells to nerve cells, are found in all nerve tissue, such as the brain, the spinal cord and the retina.
		In the mice with normal glial cells, Chen and her colleagues found that the transplanted green cells remained near the injection site, did not grow or migrate to other area of the retina, and did not grow the nerve tentacles (axons and dendrites) necessary to wire up to the host retinas and the optic nerve.
	www.theschepens.org /glial_cells_may_solve_barrier_070603.htm (989 words)

	Why Einstein's Brain? by Marian Diamond
		What discovery led me to study the ratio of glial cells to neurons in Einstein's brain back in the early 1980s? The answer is not found in a single, simple statement but is based on decades of work on how the environment affects the anatomy of the brain.
		The dendrites and the cell body are the receptive component; the axon hillock is the integrative component, the axon is the conductile component and the axon terminal is the output or secretory component.
		Glial cells are the metabolic and structural support cells for the nerve cells.
	newhorizons.org /neuro/diamond_einstein.htm (1502 words)

	Arrested proliferation of radial glial cells during midgestation in rhesus monkey
		In their amitotic period, radial glial cells remain stretched across the width of the rapidly expanding telencephalic wall.
		Elongated radial glial cells span the distance between the ventricular and pial surface of the developing telencephalon (Fig.
		In the monkey occipital lobe, radial glial cells are present throughout the last two-thirds of gestation
	www.nature.com /nature/journal/v277/n5694/abs/277303a0.html (385 words)

	[No title]
		Apoptosis: programmed cell death, or "cell suicide"; a form of cell death in which a controlled sequence of events (or programme) leads to the elimination of cells without releasing harmful substances to the surrounding area.
		Glial cells in the brain and spinal cord by far outnumber nerve cells.
		Glial scar: cluster of activated glial cells which forms a physical barrier to axonal growth.
	www.wingsforlife.com /?LNG=en&id=164&zid=78&m= (1162 words)

	Brain cells hit the big time: For years the brain's glial cells were dismissed as mere 'stuffing'. Now neuroscientists ...
		Glial cells can absorb these ions through some of the specialised channels in their cell membranes, thereby preventing a potentially dangerous build-up of high levels of potassium in the fluid surrounding brain cells.
		Glial cell 'fingers' touch neurons where the sodium channels are clustered, just as one would expect if they acted as a delivery service.
		Glial cells are also equipped with a range of 'ligand-gated ion channels' - channels that open when they sense the presence of a certain chemical.
	www.newscientist.com /channel/being-human/brain/mg14119114.000 (3156 words)

	NeurosurgeryToday.org \| What is Neurosurgery \| Patient Education Materials \| anatomy of the brain
		Glial cells are non-neuronal cells that provide support and nutrition, maintain homeostasis, form myelin, and facilitate signal transmission in the nervous system.
		Glial cells are the most common cells found in primary brain tumors.
		The basal ganglia are clusters of nerve cells surrounding the thalamus.
	www.neurosurgerytoday.org /what/patient_e/anatomy1.asp (2607 words)

	Human fetal glial cells constitutively produce HIV-inducing cytokines.
		The capacity of two human fetal glial cell lines, SVG and POJ, to increase the expression of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) was investigated.
		The capacity of conditioned media from both fetal glial cell lines to induce the expression of HIV was reduced by 45% in the presence of antibodies against human tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFalpha), suggesting that one of the HIV-activating factors released by these cells was TNFalpha.
		The finding that fetal glial cells constitutively secrete soluble factors which increase the expression of HIV in vitro suggests that in vivo, during perinatally acquired infection, similar events may occur.
	www.aegis.com /aidsline/1996/jul/M9670455.html (494 words)

	Brain Explorer - Brain Atlas - Introduction
		Glial cells are major constituents of the central nervous system, and while they do not have a direct role in neurotransmission, glial cells play a supporting role that helps define synaptic contacts and maintain the signalling abilities of neurons.
		Glial cells are smaller than neurons and lack axons and dendrites.
		Some evidence also suggests that glial cells aid (or, in some cases, prevent) recovery from neuronal injury and that they are involved in a number of diseases, such as Alzheimer’s disease, multiple sclerosis
	www.brainexplorer.org /brain_atlas/Brainatlas_index.shtml (1124 words)

	World of MS - About MSIF - Glial cells
		They are thus known as the "supporting cells" of the nervous system.
		The four main functions of glial cells are: to surround neurons and hold them in place, to supply nutrients and oxygen to neurons, to insulate one neuron from another, and to destroy and remove the carcasses of dead neurons (clean up).
		The three types of glia cells are: astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and microglia.
	www.msif.org /en/about_msif/glossary/glial_cells.html (109 words)

	glial cells - multiple sclerosis encyclopaedia (Site not responding. Last check: )
		Glial cells have hairlike filaments which hold the neurons in place and allow the central nervous system to retain its structural integrity (astrocytes).
		Glial cells supply chemicals such as potassium and calcium and regulate neurotransmitter levels (astrocytes).
		It used to be thought that glial cells were important to the Blood Brain Barrier (BBB) which shields the brain from invasion by pathogens and other unwanted cells.
	www.mult-sclerosis.org /glialcells.html (280 words)

	The Brain - Lesson 2, page 1
		Glial cells are categorized as microglia or macroglia.
		Glial cells function as supporting elements in the nervous system to provide structure and to separate and insulate groups of neurons.
		Some glial cells induce formation of impermeable tight junctions in endothelial cells that line the capillaries and venules of the brain to form the blood-brain barrier.
	science.education.nih.gov /supplements/nih2/addiction/guide/lesson2-1.htm (1705 words)

	neurons and glial cells (Site not responding. Last check: )
		Premature glial migration disrupts axon pathfinding in the...
		Acquisition of neuronal and glial markers by neural crest-derived cells in the m...
		Biometric Analysis of the Neuronal and Glial Cell Populations in the Lateral Gen...
	www.scienceoxygen.com /biology/226.html (318 words)

	ACS :: What Are Brain and Spinal Cord Tumors in Children?
		Tumors of glial cells are sometimes referred to as a group and called gliomas.
		Glial cells are the supporting cells of the brain and continue to increase in number until the child is 5 years of age.
		Subependymal giant cell astrocytomas occur in the ventricles and are almost always associated with tuberous sclerosis (an inherited condition which may also cause epilepsy, mental retardation, and tumors of the skin and kidneys).
	www.cancer.org /docroot/CRI/content/CRI_2_4_1X_What_are_childrens_brain_and_spinal_cord_tumors_4.asp (3155 words)

	BipolarNews
		Glial pathology in individuals with schizophrenia is also documented by brain imaging techniques (such as magnetic resonance imaging [MRI]) which reveals white matter alterations (using MRI) and alterations in glial white matter tracts (using defusion tensor imaging).
		A pathology involving glial cells, rather than nerve cells (which conduct nerve impulses in all the major messenger systems in the brain), makes sense in psychiatric illnesses where there are no specific neurological defects as seen in many of the more classic illnesses treated by neurologists.
		Yet glial cells are intimately involved in the biochemical metabolic and neurotrophic support of the function of neurons, and glial actions at the synapses are crucial to normal neuronal transmission.
	www.bipolarnews.org /Research%20News%202.htm (790 words)

	Lynne Oland, Arizona Research Laboratories Division of Neurobiology
		Glial cells, the most numerous cell type in the brain, once were relegated to the status of supporting cells for neurons.
		During development, glial cells have especially important roles in the survival and migration of neurons, guidance of axons, and formation of neuronal branching patterns.
		But most interestingly, the neurons in turn influence glial cell development, suggesting that a dynamic interaction between the two cell classes is a necessary element in correct development of the nervous system.
	www.neurobio.arizona.edu /faculty/oland (642 words)

	Therapeutic Uses of Stem Cells for Spinal Cord Injuries
		While the majority of cells found in the central nervous system are born during the embryonic and early postnatal period, scientists recently discovered that new neurons are continuously added to two specific regions of the adult mammalian brain (Reynolds and Weiss 1992).
		Neural stem cells were isolated from the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus and the walls of the ventricular system called the ependymal layer.
		Justification is that the stem cells are derived from embryos discarded from fertility clinics.
	www.namiscc.org /newsletters/December01/SCI-stem-cell-research.htm (2901 words)

	Studying glial cells in the roundworm may provide insight into human brain diseases
		Studying glial cells is technically difficult as they are essential for neuronal cell survival: disturbing them in any way puts the organism's life in jeopardy.
		Shaham and Perens show that worms are the perfect model system to study the function of these cells in the nervous system, because the glial cells can be manipulated and the neurons still form and function, though not entirely as normal.
		"Glial cells have been traditionally hard to study in vertebrates because it is difficult to ask how they influence neurons beyond how they affect a neuron's survival," says Shaham, head of the Strang Laboratory of Developmental Genetics.
	www.medicalnewstoday.com /medicalnews.php?newsid=25716 (1080 words)

	Webvision: Circuitry for rod signals
		Muller cells are the principal glial cell of the retina.
		The earliest phase neurons born at the apical margin of the neuroepithelium adjacent to the pigment epithelium produces primary neurons consisting of cone cells, horizontal cells and ganglion cells.
		The third glial cell type is supposedly of mesodermal origin and thus, strictly speaking are not neuroglial as are the astrocytes and Muller cells are.
	webvision.med.utah.edu /glia.html (1712 words)

	In The News: Canadian scientists shed new light on role of glial cells in brain communication
		This new study, Norepinephrine triggers release of glial ATP to increase postsynaptic efficacy, reveals the vital role played by glial cells in changing the effectiveness with which neurons talk to each other.
		The study shows that glial cells can be stimulated to release a chemical messenger, ATP, which in turn, helps neurons to permanently increase their ability to respond to signals from other neurons.
		This study finds that glial cells respond to norepinephrine by releasing ATP, which then triggers neurons to increase the efficiency of their communications.
	www.ucalgary.ca /mp2003/news/july05/glial-cells.html (539 words)

	Neuroscience for Kids - Einstein's Brain
		These scientists counted the number of neurons (nerve cells) and glial cells in four areas of Einstein’s brain: area 9 of the cerebral cortex on the right and left hemisphere and area 39 of the cerebral cortex on the right and left hemisphere.
		The ratios of neurons to glial cells in Einstein’s brain were compared to those from the brains of 11 men who died at the average age of 64.
		The ratios of neurons to glial cells in Einstein’s brain, as compared to those in the 11 normal brains, were smaller in all four areas studied.
	faculty.washington.edu /chudler/ein.html (1565 words)

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