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 | | The first carefully documented friction experiments in low-speed pipe flow were carried out independently in 1839 by the French physiologist Jean Leonard Marie Poiseuille (1799–1869), who was interested in the characteristics of blood flow, and in 1840 by the German hydraulic engineer Gotthilf Heinrich Ludwig Hagen (1797–1884). |
 | | An attempt to include the effects of viscosity into the mathematical equations was made first in 1827 by the French engineer Claude Louis Marie Navier (1785–1836), and independently by the British mathematician Sir George Gabriel Stokes, who in 1845 perfected the basic equations for viscous incompressible fluids. |
 | | The complexity of viscous flows, especially turbulent flows, severely restricted progress in fluid dynamics until the German engineer Ludwig Prandtl (1875–1953) recognized in 1904 that many flows could be divided into two principal regions. |
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