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	Hawaii - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		All of the Hawaiian Islands were formed by volcanoes arising from the sea floor through a vent described in geological theory as a hotspot.
		The isolation of the Hawaiian Islands in the middle of the Pacific Ocean, and the wide range of environments to be found on high islands located in and near the tropics, has resulted in a vast array of endemic flora and fauna, with a considerable number found exclusively in Hawaii or the surrounding ocean.
		Hawaiian is a member of the Polynesian branch of the Austronesian family.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Hawaii (6721 words)

	Hotspot (geology) - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		In geology, a hotspot is a location on the Earth's surface that has experienced active volcanism for a long period of time.
		Tuzo Wilson came up with the idea in 1963 that volcanic chains like the Hawaiian Islands result from the slow movement of a tectonic plate across a "fixed" hot spot deep beneath the surface of the planet.
		Hotspots were thought to be caused by a narrow stream of hot mantle convecting up from the mantle-core boundary called a mantle plume [1], the latest geological evidence is pointing to upper-mantle convection as a cause[2][3][4].
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Hotspot_(geology) (210 words)

	Iceland hotspot - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		The Iceland hotspot is a hotspot which is partly responsible for the high volcanic activity which has formed the island of Iceland.
		The plume, of which the Iceland hotspot is thought to be the surface expression, is believed to be quite narrow, perhaps 100 km across, and extends down to at least 400–650 km beneath the Earth's surface, and possibly down to the core-mantle boundary.
		Studies suggest that the hotspot is only 50-100 K hotter than its surroundings, which may not be a great enough difference to drive a buoyant plume.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Iceland_hotspot (430 words)

	Hotspots [This Dynamic Earth, USGS]
		For example, the Hawaiian Islands, which are entirely of volcanic origin, have formed in the middle of the Pacific Ocean more than 3,200 km from the nearest plate boundary.
		The possibility that the Hawaiian Islands become younger to the southeast was suspected by the ancient Hawaiians, long before any scientific studies were done.
		During their voyages, sea-faring Hawaiians noticed the differences in erosion, soil formation, and vegetation and recognized that the islands to the northwest (Niihau and Kauai) were older than those to the southeast (Maui and Hawaii).
	pubs.usgs.gov /gip/dynamic/hotspots.html (1002 words)

	The Emperor and Hawaiian chains
		The distinctive northwest-southeast alignment of the Hawaiian chain was known to the early Hawaiians.
		The first geologic study of the Hawaiian Islands (1840-1841) was directed by James Dwight Dana who deduced that the islands young to the southeast from the differences in their degree of erosion.
		Hawaiian volcanoes are distributed along the paired Loa and Kea trends that comprise arrays of sinusoidal volcano loci.
	www.mantleplumes.org /Hawaii.html (5656 words)

	The 'fixed' hotspot that formed Hawaii may not be stationary, scientists conclude: 01/03
		Geologists have long assumed that the Hawaiian Islands owe their existence to a hotspot, a collection of stationary plumes of magma rising from the Earth's mantle and penetrating the surface that formed Mauna Loa, Kilauea and other massive volcanoes.
		The predominant theory is that the Pacific Plate has been moving across a fixed Hawaiian hotspot for millions of years, creating a trail of volcanoes whose peaks emerge from the ocean as Maui, Oahu and the other islands that make up the 49th state.
		The Hawaiian Islands are considered a textbook example of the fixed hotspot phenomenon.
	stanford.edu /dept/news/report/news/2003/january8/aguhotspots-18.html (667 words)

	The Hawaiian Islands (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-30)
		The Hawaiian islands form a chain that is stretched to the northwest and southeast.
		Ages of rocks from different Islands in the Hawaiian island chain show that the islands are progressively older to the northwest: Oahu, 3.4 to 2.2 Myr (millions of years); Molokai, 1.8 to 1.3 Myr; Maui, 1.3 to 0.8 Myr; and the Big Island (Hawaii), less than 0.7 and still growing.
		In the middle of the Pacific ocean, the Hawaiian hotspot remains stationary while the Pacific plate slowly moves overhead to the northwest as illustrated in the cartoon on the left.
	www.punaridge.org /doc/factoids/Hawaii/Default.htm (452 words)

	Homework: Crater Counting on Mars
		Hotspot island chains, therefore, preserve a record of the motion of the plate on which they are built.
		All three are presently active hotspot chains, and have been active for at least 60 Ma, based on the age of basalt flows in the island chains.
		In this exercise, you will use the Hawaiian hotspot to examine the motion of the Pacific plate over the time span during which that hotspot has been active.
	www.mtholyoke.edu /courses/mdyar/ast223/earth/earth_hw_a.html (834 words)

	Life Stages of Hawaiian Volcanoes
		The frequent eruptions during the tholeiite stage mean that construction of the coastal plain is able to keep pace with the subsidence of the volcano, and indeed the parts of Kilauea and Mauna Loa that have the most young flows are characterized by well-developed coastal terraces.
		This combination of lots of big cinder cones and lots of thicker viscous flows all concentrated near the summits causes Hawaiian volcanoes in this alkalic stage to be noticeably steeper and bumpier than in the tholeiite stage.
		The result of these processes is that much of the submarine component of all the Hawaiian volcanoes consists of very weak and unconsolidated easily-weathered material.
	volcano.und.nodak.edu /vwdocs/hawaii_review/life_stages/old_stages.html (2436 words)

	Hotspot stability and mobility
		Proponents of hotspot fixity assume that the hotspot sources are all fixed to one another in a “hotspot reference frame” and that the lithospheric plates are moving around on top of this reference frame.
		If this reference frame exists, then all the hotspots should be fixed to one another, and if we reconstruct the plates correctly, then the past position of all of these hotspots, relative to one another, should not vary as one goes back in time.
		Dated hotspot tracks on one plate, that have been used to derive a set of rotations describing the relative motion of the hotspot reference frame with respect to this plate.
	www.mantleplumes.org /HawaiiFocusGroup/Stock_abs.html (1435 words)

	UC Santa Cruz Seismologists Detect Origin Of Volcanic Hotspot That Created The Hawaiian Islands
		To study the structure of the core-mantle boundary beneath the Hawaiian hotspot, Russell analyzed seismic waves from earthquakes in the region of Tonga and Fiji.
		The Hawaiian plume does not rise straight up through the earth because it passes through layers of rock in the mantle that are moving horizontally.
		Based on the expected deflection of the plume as it rises through the mantle, the Harvard researchers predicted its location in the lower mantle to be in the precise area where Russell detected evidence of the transition from horizontal to vertical flow in the core-mantle boundary layer.
	www.eurekalert.org /pub_releases/1998-11/UoCS-USCS-181198.php (825 words)

	Ocean Drilling Program: Leg 197 Preliminary Report
		Tests of the fixed hotspot hypothesis based on global plate circuits suggested large relative motions between Hawaii and hotspots in the Atlantic and Indian Ocean basins (Molnar and Atwater, 1973; Molnar and Stock, 1987), but uncertainties in the relative plate motions employed in these tests limited their resolving power (Acton and Gordon, 1994).
		In the example of the Hawaiian hotspot, the paleolatitudes of extinct volcanic edifices of the Emperor chain should match the present-day latitude of Hawaii if the hotspot has remained fixed with respect to the Earth's spin axis.
		These findings indicate an older episode of hotspot motion and, coupled with the inferences based on relative plate motions, suggest that Hawaiian hotspot motion is a viable hypothesis that should be tested further; this test became the primary objective of ODP Leg 197.
	www-odp.tamu.edu /publications/prelim/197_prel/prel4.html (756 words)

	[No title]
		In order to evaluate the temporal variations of the activity of the Hawaiian hotspot, we calculate both the magma production rate, associated to volcanism, and the rate of swell formation, characteristic of the plume behaviour.
		This leads to an estimation of the volume of magma produced by the Hawaiian hotspot independent of the subsidence model, and taking into account the volume of the compensating root.
		Correlation between both volume fluxes associated to the swell and to volcanic materialdemonstrates that the plume volume flux is responsible for temporal variations in magmaflow rate.
	www.soc.soton.ac.uk /soes/staff/tmin/abstract-bonneville.doc (439 words)

	Volcanic History - Pacific Disaster Center (PDC)
		According to his theory, the Hawaiian Island chain resulted from the Pacific Plate moving over a deep, stationary hotspot in the mantle, located beneath the present-day position of the Island of Hawaii.
		As the plate movement carries the island beyond the hotspot, the magma source is cutoff, and volcanism ceases.
		The other Hawaiian islands that have moved northwestward beyond the hot spot were successively cut off from the sustaining magma source and are no longer volcanically active.
	www.pdc.org /iweb/volcano_history.jsp (911 words)

	The "fixed" hotspot that created Hawaii was not stationary after all, study finds
		The Hawaiian Islands are part of a long chain of volcanoes collectively known as the Hawaiian-Emperor Seamounts that stretch some 3,600 miles along the floor of the Pacific — from the Big Island of Hawaii to Alaska’s Aleutian Trench.
		The segment known as the Hawaiian Ridge, which includes the Hawaiian and Midway Islands, forms a neat line of volcanoes that extends some 1,800 miles northwest across the Pacific.
		Using these data, the research team concluded that the "fixed" Hawaiian hotspot probably crept southward between 81 million and 47 million years ago at a rate of about 44 millimeters a year, "changing our understanding of terrestrial dynamics," they wrote.
	innovations-report.com /html/reports/earth_sciences/report-20175.html (776 words)

	Keller et al., 2000, Nature 405:673-676 (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-30)
		As the rising mantle plume encountered the hot, low-viscosity asthenosphere and hot, thin lithosphere near the spreading center, it entrained enough of the isotopically depleted upper mantle to overwhelm the chemical characteristics of the plume.
		The Hawaiian hotspot thus joins the growing list of major hotspots that early in their history have interacted with a rift.
		The Hawaiian Islands are well-sampled and it is unlikely that anything as depleted as the Detroit tholeiites has escaped notice.
	ridge.oce.orst.edu /rkeller/KellerNature2000.html (2860 words)

	Ocean Drilling Program: Leg 197 Scientific Prospectus
		The expected inclination value for a fixed hotspot is derived from Hawaii's current position, whereas values for Nintoku, Detroit, and Meiji are based on the hypothesis that their location along the Emperor trend records mainly motion of the Hawaiian hotspot.
		Given a flattening factor of 0.52, the potential error in sediment-based inclination is larger than the signal of hotspot motion proposed for testing for Detroit and Meiji seamounts, the error is two-thirds of the signal proposed for testing.
		If the Emperor seamounts record mainly motion of the Hawaiian hotspot, paleolatitudes should fall close to this corrected latitudinal trend; if the hotspot has been stationary, the paleolatitudes should fall close to the present-day latitude of Hawaii.
	www-odp.tamu.edu /publications/prosp/197_prs/197figs.html (1051 words)

	Hawaiian hotspot [This Dynamic Earth, USGS] (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-30)
		The Hawaiian Islands themselves are a very small part of the chain and are the youngest islands in the immense, mostly submarine mountain chain composed of more than 80 volcanoes.
		The length of the Hawaiian Ridge segment alone, from the Big Island northwest to Midway Island, is about equal to the distance from Washington, D.C. to Denver, Colorado (2,600 km).
		The amount of lava erupted to form the Hawaiian-Emperor chain is calculated to be at least 750,000 cubic kilometers-more than enough to blanket the entire State of California with a layer of lava roughly 1.5 km thick.
	pubs.usgs.gov /gip/dynamic/Hawaiian.html (385 words)

	Evidence for moving mantle plumes (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-30)
		Since the early 1970s most geologists have accepted that hotspots are essentially fixed features within the mantle, and that they have left a record of their existence as chains of extinct volcanoes across the plates that have moved over top of them.
		is that the Hawaii Hotspot migrated south at a rate of close 40 mm/y for the period from at least 100 m.y.
		Tarduno J and Cottrell R, 1997, Paleomagnetic evidence for motion of the Hawaiian hotspot during formation of the Emperor Seamounts.
	www.mala.bc.ca /~earles/hotspot-motion-aug03.htm (734 words)

	No Title
		The bend, which separates the westward trending Hawaiian islands from the northward-trending Emperor seamounts (Figure 1) has no equal among the Earth's hotspot tracks; it is the clearest physical manifestation of a change in plate motion in a fixed hotspot reference frame.
		These findings indicating an older episode of hotspot motion, coupled with the inferences based on relative plate motions suggest to us that Hawaiian hotspot motion is a viable hypothesis which should be tested further.
		Tarduno, J.A. and R. Cottrell, Paleomagnetic evidence for motion of the Hawaiian hotspot during for- mation of the Emperor Seamounts, Earth Planet.
	www.earth.rochester.edu /pmag/odp-proposal523.html (6359 words)

	Plate Tectonics
		Hotspots are places where molten rock from the earth's mantle is erupting at the surface.
		Hotspots can also create large igneous provinces, such as the Ontong Java Plateau (northeast of Australia) and the Kerguellen Plateau (in the southern Indian Ocean).
		One hotspot theory states that the supercontinents move over top of a hotspot that heats the crust, causing it to uplift, thin, and eventually pull apart.
	www.ig.utexas.edu /research/projects/plates/pt.info.htm (739 words)

	MIT-WHOI Joint Program: Research: Marine Geology and Geophysics
		Hawaii is the archetype hotspot and is presumed to overlie the archetype mantle plume.
		The Hawaiian hotspot and swell also offer one of the best-characterized settings to investigate the interaction of a mantle plume with oceanic lithosphere well removed from an oceanic spreading center.
		Although the Hawaiian hotspot has been the focus of a number of geodynamical and geochemical modeling efforts over the past two decades, long-standing and fundamental questions remain about the nature of the Hawaiian plume and its interactions with the oceanic lithosphere.
	web.mit.edu /~mit-whoi/www/research/mgg/plume.html (362 words)

	Geotimes - August 2003 - Hawaiian Hotspot
		Either the Pacific plate or the hotspot had to shift in order to build the new line of isles.
		Most geologists have long thought that the Hawaiian Islands formed by the Pacific plate moving over a hotspot plume that sat fixed in the mantle; however, recent research suggests a moving hotspot could have been responsible.
		For Tarduno's theory of a moving hotspot to be correct, the hotspot plumes beneath the Pacific would have to be moving collectively.
	www.geotimes.org /aug03/WebExtra081103.html (437 words)

	Volcano (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-30)
		The classic example is the Hawaiian chain of volcanoes and seamounts; Yellowstone is cited as another classic example, in this case the intersection is with the underside of continental crust.
		Iceland is sometimes cited as yet a third classical example, but complicated by the coincidence of a hotspot intersecting an oceanic ridge constructive margin.
		On the third hand, high-resolution seismology of different hotspots is yielding different pictures of the deep sub-structure of Hawaii versus Iceland.
	volcano.iqnaut.net (3495 words)

	Geological Society - News - Hot spot hits sticky patch
		Many geologists have long thought that the Hawaiian Islands owe their existence to a "hotspot" – stationary plumes of magma that rise from the Earth's mantle to form Mauna Loa, Kilauea and Hawaii's other massive volcanoes.
		They concluded that the "fixed" Hawaiian hotspot crept southward between 81 million and 47 million years ago at a rate of about 44 millimetres a year.
		show that the "hotspot" moved south, in the geomagnetic reference frame, by many hundreds of kilometres during the formation of the chain - leading to a conclusion at odds with one of the primary predictions of the plume hypothesis - that hotspots are relatively fixed with respect to the deep mantle."
	www.geolsoc.org.uk /template.cfm?name=MovingStory (1284 words)

	General Information about Hawaiian Shield Volcanoes
		The outer Hawaiian Islands (aka the Northwest Hawaiian Islands) are a series of 9 small, older land masses north of Kauai that extend from Nihoa to Kure and which are the above sea level remnants of once much larger volcanic mountains.
		Pahoehoe and 'a'a are two words in the Hawaiian language that are commonly used by modern scientists (especially geologists and volcanologists), as well as volcano-interested lay persons from around the world, to describe some lava flows.
		True, 'a'a flows are full of sharp, loose rubble on their surfaces, and are not fun to walk accross, but it is probably a modern "myth" that this name evolved to evoke the pain of walking on an 'a'a flow.
	www.soest.hawaii.edu /GG/HCV/haw_volc.html (649 words)

	The 'fixed' hotspot that created Hawaii was not stationary after all, study finds
		Geologists have long assumed that the Hawaiian Islands owe their existence to a "hotspot" -- stationary plumes of magma that rise from the Earth's mantle to form Mauna Loa, Kilauea and Hawaii's other massive volcanoes.
		The Hawaiian Islands are part of a long chain of volcanoes collectively known as the Hawaiian-Emperor Seamounts that stretch some 3,600 miles along the floor of the Pacific -- from the Big Island of Hawaii to Alaska's Aleutian Trench.
		At that point, the Hawaiian Ridge meets the Emperor Seamounts -- an older volcanic chain that abruptly changes course, stretching more than 1,000 miles almost due north to the Aleutian Trench.
	news-service.stanford.edu /news/2003/august6/seamount-86.html (745 words)

	Hawaii hot spot (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-30)
		The Hawaiian hotspot, dead centre to the reconstructed Pacific and interpeted from the global framework of crust - mantle relations (generally depicted on this site) as the remnant of the Pacific plume partitioning Pangaea.
		The Indonesian 'hub' of Indo-Pacific spreading, representing detachment of the Himalayan substrate to the present-day position of the South China Sea and reflecting a commensurate shift in mass distribution (Himalayan front / Indonesian arc correlatives).
		Plate tectonics on the other hand would interpret the circumpacific positive mass anomaly as a 'subducting slab', but have no explanation why this distribution is Pacific (Hawaiian hot-spot) -centred, rather than ridge-centred, i.e., the global-scale concentricity of structure has no place in ridge-centred spreading of plate tectonics.
	users.indigo.net.au /don/pr/grace.html (351 words)

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