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	Comments on Crude Oil Gravity Adjustments - LA DNR - Technology Assessment Division
		The API gravity of a particualr crude is merely a measure of its specific API gravity of a particular crude is merely a measure of its specific gravity, or density.
		For crudes that have undergone detailed physical and chemical property analysis, the API gravity can be used as a rough index of the quality of the crudes of similar compostion as they naturally occur (that is, without adulteration, mixing, blending, etc.).
		Though the heavy stock and the light stock could be mixed to produce a blend with the same API gravity as the medium stock, the composition of the blend would be far different from the medium stock, as the figure indicates.
	dnr.louisiana.gov /sec/execdiv/techasmt/oil_gas/crude_oil_gravity/comments_1989.htm (808 words)

	Heavy crude oil - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		Heavy crude oil or Extra Heavy oil is any type of crude oil which does not flow easily.
		Extra heavy oil from the area north of the Orinoco river in Venezula, which has by far the largest volume of the 30 or more countries with known reserves[1], has a viscosity of over 10,000 centipoise and 10° API specific gravity.
		Most geologists agree that crude becomes "heavy" as a result of biodegradation, in which lighter ends are preferentially consumed by bacteria in the reservoir, leaving heavier hydrocarbons behind.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Heavy_crude_oil (411 words)

	Overview of the Canadian Downstream Petroleum Industry: Crude Slate (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-10)
		Crude oil types are typically differentiated by their density (measured as API gravity) and their sulphur content.
		Crude oil with a low API gravity is considered a heavy crude oil and typically has a higher sulphur content and a larger yield of lower-valued products.
		The crude slate is expected to change significantly in the years ahead as refiners increase their capacity to process heavy crude oil and lower quality synthetic crudes.
	www.oppi-bipp.gc.ca /reports/2005-07/overview/crude_slate_e.cfm (787 words)

	OPEC’s Discounts On Heavy Crude Oil: Is A New Policy Instrument Taking Shape?
		Light crude oils are contrasted with heavy ones that have a low share of light hydrocarbons and require a much more complex refining process than distillation (such as coking and cracking) to produce similar proportions of the more valuable petroleum products.
		Crude oils with high sulfur content are referred to as sour crudes while those with low sulfur content are referred to as sweet crudes.
		Crude oils that yield a higher proportion of the more valuable final petroleum products and require simple refining processes (the light/sweet crude variety) usually command a premium over those that yield a lower percentage of the more valuable products and require more complex refining processes (the heavy/sour crude variety).
	www.mees.com /postedarticles/oped/v49n31-5OD01.htm (3354 words)

	Canadian Heavy Crude Study - Purvin & Gertz (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-10)
		Upgrading bitumen/heavy crude to produce light synthetic crude is an important route for expanding conventional heavy crude and bitumen markets.
		Later in the forecast period, Midwest heavy/light crude differentials are expected to widen in unison with global benchmarks.
		Heavy crude markets, which were limited through 1997 by available outlets, pipeline capacity constraints and diluent supply, are now production cost limited.
	www.purvingertz.com /canpress.html (884 words)

	Canadian Heavy Crude Article - Purvin & Gertz (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-10)
		The rapid increase in Canadian heavy crude supply through 1996 and 1997 resulted in displacement of other heavy crude to what may be considered a structural minimum level.
		Crude runs in PADD V, or the Western U.S., are predominantly light sour and heavy sour grades.
		Heavy crude markets were limited through 1997 by available outlets, pipeline capacity constraints, and diluent supply, but are now facing security of supply concerns.
	www.purvingertz.com /sjk062899.html (3355 words)

	Impacts of the Venezuelan Crude Oil Production Loss
		The crude oil shifts among source countries for these 11 refineries were not the same as the total U.S. shifts shown in Figure 1, which implies that other refineries were changing crude oil import sources as well to deal with the shortage.
		Table 4 displays the crude oil inputs in aggregate for the six refineries that process mainly heavy crude oils (i.e., API gravity of 25 degrees or less based on imports received) to refineries processing intermediate or light crude oils (API gravity greater than 25 degrees based on imports received).
		Heavy crude oil refineries' imports fell 108 MB/D in December and 160 MB/D in January compared to November.
	www.eia.doe.gov /pub/oil_gas/petroleum/feature_articles/2003/venezuelan/vzimpacts.htm (4582 words)

	Apache Corporation > Topic Report: Impact of Refinery Capacity on Crude Oil Prices — Part 2
		European and US refiners have steadily addressed the issue of running heavier sour crudes by adding conversion capacity (catalytic and hydro cracking capacities) and increasing their ability to produce fuels through the addition of catalytic reforming and alkylation processes.
		Heavy crudes require a large discount to light crudes for refiners to turn a profit because heavy crudes tend to produce greater volumes of low value products and lesser volumes of high value products.
		Crudes such as Forties, WTI, and other sweet grades produced by Apache should see their values continue to increase relative to sour grades until the refining disparity is corrected in Asia over the next several years.
	www.apachecorp.com /Explore/Explore_Features/200601/Topic_Report_Impact_of_Refinery_Capacity_on_Crude_Oil_Prices_Part_2 (998 words)

	- Thermo Electron Corporation - Finnigan LTQ FT Mass Spectrometer for Direct Analysis of Heavy Petroleum Crude Oil (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-10)
		As heavier crude oils make up larger proportions of worldwide petroleum reserves, effective processing of heavy petroleum, where variation in the oil composition directly affects the downstream processing, becomes increasingly important.
		The extraordinary complexity of crude oil requires ultra-high resolving power and sensitivity for the analysis of polar components, which are found at low concentrations in petroleum samples.
		Heavy crude oil is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons containing heteroaromatic rings in its polar fraction.
	www.thermo.com /com/cda/newsevents/news_detail/1,5588,11788,00.html (306 words)

	Cattle Network - Connecting The Beef Industry Worldwide
		Heavy crude usually has more sulfur than blends that are classified as light and sweet.
		As crude oil prices nearly tripled since 1999, the share of heavy crude (less than 20 degrees to 30 degrees gravity on the API scale) the U.S. imported has grown to a record 45.3% last year from 43% in 2004 and 36.7% in 1999.
		Sweet crude now makes up 50% of the throughput in the company's network, but this will drop to 33% as it runs more of the heavy crude it produces in Canada and Venezuela.
	www.cattlenetwork.com /content.asp?contentid=22482 (841 words)

	Supri-A, Petroleum Engineering Dept, Stanford University
		So-called cold production of heavy oil is attractive because steam injection is costly due to the operating and capital expenses for steam generation facilities.
		Crude oil saturated with methane as well as non-foaming mineral oil will be employed.
		By using various types of oil (viscosity, acid number, and intermediate versus heavy), we hope to delineate crude-oil conditions that are conducive to the formation of foamy oil.
	pangea.stanford.edu /PetEng/supria/heavyOils.php (1120 words)

	Government to raise heavy crude royalties
		Heavy oil operators pay a customary royalty rate of 12.5 percent per barrel, but under the royalty relief program that rate has ranged from 3.9 percent to 11.6 percent per barrel, said Patrick Etchart, spokesman for Interior’s Minerals Management Service in Denver.
		Interior collects nearly $19 million a year in royalties from heavy oil, but that is just part of the $7 billion annually it collects from royalties on all production of oil, coal and natural gas.
		Once the price for heavy oil rose above $24 a barrel for six consecutive months - it was about $31 throughout the second half of last year - the bureau had authority by law to consider dropping the royalty relief.
	www.columbiatribune.com /2005/Apr/20050428Busi004.asp (425 words)

	The Oil Drum \| The Peak of Light Sweet Crude?
		Heavy sour crude requires removal of the sulphur and catalytic cracking of the long carbon chain molecules to shorter species in order to get much gasoline out of it.
		And, as Econbrowser noted recently, the price spread between light sweet crude and heavier grades has grown unprecedentedly: consistent with the idea that the good stuff is in decline, while there's still increasing amounts of the not-so-great oil.
		At present the API gravity for the new Basket is heavier, at 32.7º compared to 34.6 º for the previous basket of seven crudes.
	www.theoildrum.com /story/2005/8/23/233714/826 (2905 words)

	Crude Oil Biochemical Technology
		Crude oil is a dense, dark fluid containing many varieties of complex hydrocarbon molecules, along with organic impurities containing sulfur, nitrogen, and heavy metals.
		The heavier a crude oil is, the more difficult a challenge it presents in extracting it from the ground and purifying it into end products.
		Crude oil's physical properties, such as viscosity, and its chemical impurities affect the cost of recovery and refining, and the amount of waste produced in processing.
	www.bnl.gov /bnlweb/pubaf/pr/1999/bnlpr042299.html (851 words)

	Heavy Crude Oils (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-10)
		These heavy crude oils are known as unconventional crude oils because they cannot be produced, transported, and refined by conventional methods.
		Spills of heavy crude oils and syncrudes are difficult to clean up and may cause long-term injury to the affected environment.
		The oil, particularly if it accumulates in upland soils, on the shore, or on the sea floor (some heavy crude and residual oils are denser than seawater and sink), may be extremely persistent and may cause chronic injury to the affected environment.
	www.battelle.org /environment/publications/EnvUpdates/Fall2003/article9.stm (381 words)

	Radical Noesis - Thinking outside the box: Sweet Crude and the Peak
		He notes that sour (or heavy) crude has higher sulfur content, and is therefore much more expensive to refine.
		Refineries were designed to process that grade of oil, and are largely incapable of sufficiently processing the heavy crude.
		Heavy crude production is (and will continue) to drop off as fields are exhausted.
	www.radnoesis.info /rnarchives/082405-sweet_crude_and_the_.php (584 words)

	Delayed Coking Schemes Are Most Economical for Heavy-Oil Upgrading - Science - RedOrbit (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-10)
		To transport a heavy oil, operators can heat it to keep it liquid, mix it with water and a surfactant to stabilize it as an emulsion, or blend it with a diluent such as a lighter crude or naphtha.
		We analyzed several alternative configurations to upgrade heavy oil using in-house and published process data.5 A hypothetical 100,000-b/sd plant, consisting of 80,000 b/sd of heavy oil and 20,000 b/sd of diluent naphtha, is used in all cases.
		Also in all cases, the heavy oil is upgraded to SCO and the naphtha diluent recovered for reuse in the field.
	www.redorbit.com /news/science/431192/delayed_coking_schemes_are_most_economical_for_heavyoil_upgrading/index.html?source=r_science (2489 words)

	[No title] (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-10)
		The Sincor development in Venezuela involves producing heavy crude on land at Zuata in the Orinoco Belt, transporting this output to the coast and upgrading it to a light, low-sulphur crude.
		The Extra Heavy crude is diluted and piped to the Jose Industrial Complex, where the upgrading facility turns out the extra heavy crude oil to roughly 180,000 barrels of sweet crude per day.
		Plateau output is about 200,000 barrels of heavy crude per day, processed into 180,000 barrels of light crude.
	www.statoil.com /STATOILCOM/svg00990.nsf/UNIDprint/AE24C4530E1309DBC1256F0B00232606?opendocument (181 words)

	Hydrocarbons Technology - Hamaca-Ameriven Syncrude Project, Orinoco
		The Hamaca 'heavy crude' upgrade project is the latest of four projects that seek to exploit the Venezuelan extra-heavy crude oil and bitumen deposits situated in the Orinoco heavy-oil belt, in Central Venezuela.
		Estimates of the recoverable reserves are in excess of 1.3 trillion barrels of heavy and extra-heavy oil in a large stratigraphic trap on the southern flank of the Oriente basin.
		The four projects convert the extra-heavy crude from approximately 9° API density crude to lighter, sweeter synthetic crude, known as syncrude (26° API), at the Jose refinery complex on the northern coast of Venezuela.
	www.hydrocarbons-technology.com /projects/hamaca (1212 words)

	Heavy Oil: A Solution to Dwindling Domestic Oil Supplies
		Clearly, production of heavy crude oil and natural bitumen on a commercial basis would be of enormous benefit to the United States, restoring energy independence in the intermediate term and providing secure energy supplies from the Western Hemisphere for the foreseeable future.
		Heavy crude oils and natural bitumens are difficult to produce economically because their low gravities — and correspondingly high viscosities — retard their ability to flow within a reservoir.
		Crude oil is considered “heavy” if its API gravity is lower than 20 degrees and its viscosity is higher than 1,000 centipoise.
	www.petroleumequities.com /HeavyOilReport.htm (991 words)

	Project Summary - Valuation of Heavy Crude Oils (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-10)
		We estimated the values of these crudes relative to specified marker crudes in each region, using refinery LP modeling and a standard modeling approach for crude valuation.
		This approach involves a series of refinery model runs in which incremental volumes of the crude oil of interest are progressively added to a specified refinery crude slate, displacing equivalent volumes of the base crude blend from the crude slate.
		Results returned by the series of model runs yield a "demand curve" for the crude oil and refinery of interest, relating the marginal value of the crude oil in that refinery to the crude's volume share of the refinery's crude slate.
	www.mathproinc.com /projects/?title=Valuation+of+Heavy+Crude+Oils (196 words)

	Canadian Heavy Crude Study - Purvin & Gertz (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-10)
		With the drop in crude oil prices and widening of light/heavy differentials in late 1997/early 1998, the Canadian heavy oil industry suffered a major setback.
		Refiners have started to prepare to process more heavy oil, but are now concerned whether adequate heavy oil supplies will be available to meet their ongoing requirements.
		Canada’s extensive oilsands and heavy oil resource base is drawing some attention from international players who are considering the potential of participating in the Canadian industry.
	www.purvingertz.com /canstudy.html (684 words)

	Refining Process (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-10)
		Crude oil in a laboratory flask will begin boiling at about room temperature (around 70°F); the temperature of the vapor above the liquid will rise as the crude oil continues to boil.
		Crude oil processing equipment varies from one refinery to the next.
		Its total conversion of crude oil to light products is about 85 percent, a significantly high conversion rate for low-grade crude oil.
	www.chevron.com /products/about/pascagoula/refiningprocess/whatiscrude.shtml (430 words)

	BLM Press Release: Royalty Relief for Heavy Crude Expected To Increase Domestic Production
		A royalty rate reduction for "heavy" crude, which will boost domestic oil production, was announced today by the Department of Interior's Assistant Secretary for Land and Minerals, Bob Armstrong and C. Kyle Simpson, the Department of Energy's Associate Deputy Secretary of Energy.
		Heavy oil production, from both federal and non-federal lands, makes up approximately one third of production in the lower-48 states.
		Under the rule, royalty rate payments for qualifying heavy oil will be reduced on a sliding scale from 12.5% for 20° API gravity crude to a minimum of 0.5% for 6° API gravity crude.
	www.blm.gov /nhp/news/releases/pages/1996/pr960208.html (368 words)

	Heavy Oil and the Downstream–Beyond API and Sulfur
		In several regions of the world, there are real prospects for significantly higher production volumes of heavy crude.
		By its very nature, heavy crude is much more difficult for refiners to process than the lighter grades that comprise the bulk of the world’s crude production.
		In addition, the implications for the refiner of processing heavy crude on their desired refined product slate will be examined.
	www.searchanddiscovery.com /documents/abstracts/2005intl_paris/earnest.htm (202 words)

	Spectrometer For Direct Analysis Of Heavy Petroleum Crude Oil
		As heavier crude oils make up larger proportions of worldwide petroleum reserves, effective processing of heavy petroleum, where variation in the oil composition directly affects the downstream processing, becomes increasingly important.
		The extraordinary complexity of crude oil requires ultra-high resolving power and sensitivity for the analysis of polar components, which are found at low concentrations in petroleum samples.
		Heavy crude oil is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons containing heteroaromatic rings in its polar fraction.
	www.oilandgasonline.com /content/news/article.asp?docid=5dc4d27a-a114-4f54-befb-50fd4c74f2a1&VNETCOOKIE=NO (281 words)

	CorpWatch : CANADA: Turning sludge into black gold (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-10)
		Heavy oil also is being produced in the Middle East, the Caspian Sea, Brazil and even in California's San Joaquin Valley.
		It costs about $25 a barrel to produce crude from Canada's oil sands, an acceptable cost when oil is trading for more than $70 a barrel.
		The key difference: The heavy oil in Venezuela was quite warm and flowed easily, albeit slowly, while in Canada the oil-sand mixture had the look and consistency of tar-like Play-Doh.
	www.corpwatch.org /article.php?id=13557 (1501 words)

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