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Topic: Hetmans of Poland and Lithuania

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	Online Encyclopedia and Dictionary - Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
		While the Commonwealth's first century was a golden age for both Poland and Lithuania, the second century was marked by military defeats, a return to serfdom for the peasants, and growing anarchy in political life.
		Estimated grain consumption in the "Crown" (Poland proper) and Prussia in 1560-1570 was some 113,000 tons of wheat (or 226,000 łaszt — a łaszt, or "last," being a large bulk measure--in the case of grain, about half a ton).
		After the Counter-Reformation, when the Roman Catholic Church regained power in Poland, the szlachta became almost exclusively Roman Catholic, despite the fact that Roman Catholicism was not a majority religion (the Roman Catholic and Orthodox churches counted approximately 40% of the population each, while the remaining 20% were Jews and members of various Protestant churches).
	fact-archive.com /encyclopedia/Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth (4206 words)

	Hetman - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		Hetman (from Czech: hejtman, German: Hauptmann, Old Slavonic vatamman, Turkish: Ataman) was the title of the second highest military commander (after the monarch) used in 15th to 18th century Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania, known from 1569 to 1795 as the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
		Hetmans were main commanders of the military forces, second only to the monarch in the army's chain of command.
		In Russia, the office of Cossack Hetman was abolished by Catherine II of Russia in 1764.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Hetman (426 words)

	Hetman - Open Encyclopedia (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-20)
		Hetman (from Czech: hejtman, German: Hauptmann) was the title of the second highest military commander (after the king) used in 15th to 18th century Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania, known from 1568 to 1795 as the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
		Each hetman received a hetman's mace as the symbol of his postition (it was added to his coat of arms).
		Grand Hetmans usually were in command of the professioal and mobilised army and during peace time stayed at the capital involved in politcs, guarding the interst of the army and planning campaigns.
	open-encyclopedia.com /Hetman (1059 words)

	POLAND - LoveToKnow Article on POLAND (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-20)
		His supposed preference for Lithuania was the real cause of his unpopularity in Poland, where, to the very end of his reign, he was regarded with suspicion, and where every effort was made to thwart his far-seeing and patriotic political combinations, which were beyond the comprehension of his self-seeking and narrowminded contemporaries.
		Poland had established a sort of suzerainty over Moldavia as early as the end of the I4th century; but at best it was a loose and vague overlordship which the Hospodars repudiated whenever they were strong enough to do so.
		The first symptom of this lawlessness was the separation of Poland and Lithuania, the Lithuanians proceeding~ to elect Alexander, Casimirs fourth son, as their grand-duke, without even consulting the Polish senate, in flagrant violation of the union of Horodlo.
	www.1911encyclopedia.org /P/PO/POLAND.htm (18908 words)

	Hetman - free-definition (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-20)
		Hetman (from Czech: hejtman, German: Hauptmann) was the title of the military commander and administrator in 15th to 18th century Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania, known from 1568 to 1795 as the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
		The tile of hetman was given to the leader of army and till 1581 hetman existed only during the specific campaigns and wars.
		The hetman had NO right to order forces of the royal court, royal guard, units equipped by the cities, towns, etc., or private individuals, although during wars they often voluntarely pledged their obedience to him.
	www.free-definition.com /Hetman.html (984 words)

	Hetman (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-20)
		The tile of hetman was given to the leaderof army and till 1581 hetman existed only during the specific campaigns and wars.
		Hetmans were maincommanders of the military forces, second only to the monarch in the army's chain of command.
		Grand Hetmans usually were in command of the professioal and mobilised army and during peace time stayed at the capitalinvolved in politcs, guarding the interst of the army and planning campaigns.
	www.therfcc.org /hetman-155524.html (944 words)

	Reference.com/Encyclopedia/Hetman
		Hetman was the title of the second highest military commander (after the monarch) used in 15th to 18th century Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania, known from 1569 to 1795 as the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
		The title of hetman was given to the leader of Polish Army and until 1581 the hetman position existed only during the specific campaigns and wars.
		Hetmans were the main commanders of the military forces, second only to the monarch in the army's chain of command.
	www.reference.com /browse/wiki/Hetman (720 words)

	Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - the free encyclopedia (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-20)
		While the Commonwealth's first century was a goldenage for both Poland and Lithuania, the second century was marked by military defeats, a return to serfdom for the peasants, and growing anarchy in politicallife.
		Estimatedgrain consumption in the "Crown" (Poland proper) and Prussia in 1560-1570 was some 113,000 tons of wheat (or 226,000 łaszt — a łaszt, or "last," being a large bulkmeasure--in the case of grain, about half a ton).
		After the Counter-Reformation, when the RomanCatholic Church regained power in Poland, the szlachta became almost exclusivelyRoman Catholic, despite the fact that Roman Catholicism was not amajority religion (the Roman Catholic and Orthodox churches counted approximately 40% of the population each, while the remaining20% were Jews and members of various Protestant churches).
	www.free-web-encyclopedia.com /?t=Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth (4053 words)

	Offices in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - Encyclopedia, History, Geography and Biography
		Hetmans were very independent; they could maintain their own foreign contacts with the Ottoman Empire, Russia and the Tatars.
		As the highest military commanders and administrators, hetmans made administrative and juridical law concerning the military; from 1590, such law had the same force as the Sejm’s legislation.
		A Hetman's symbol of office was a mace (buława), which was added to his coat of arms.
	www.arikah.com /encyclopedia/Offices_in_Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth (4443 words)

	Ataman ralph nader Ataman
		Hetman (from Czech: hejtman, German: Hauptmann, Turkish: Ataman) was the title of the second highest military commander (after the monarch) used in 15th to 18th century Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania, known from 1569 to 1795 as the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
		The tile of hetman was given to the leader of Polish Army and till 1581 hetman existed only during the specific campaigns and wars.
		This system worked well when a hetman had great ability and the monarch was weak, but by the same token it sometimes produced disastrous results in the opposite case, as illustrated by the actions of Mikolaj Potocki in 1648.
	www.find-ask.com /Encyclopedia/Ataman/Ataman.html (552 words)

	Ukraine. The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001-05 (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-20)
		It borders on Poland in the northwest; on Slovakia, Hungary, Romania, and Moldova in the southwest; on the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov in the south; on Russia in the east and northeast; and on Belarus in the north.
		Drained by the Dnieper, the Dniester, the Buh, and the Donets rivers, Ukraine consists largely of fertile steppes, extending from the Carpathians and the Volhynian-Podolian uplands in the west to the Donets Ridge in the southeast.
		Hetman Ivan Mazepa, presiding over a diminished Cossack state, sought once again to free Ukraine from Russian domination; he thus joined Sweden against Russia in the Northern War, but their defeat at Poltava by Czar Peter I in 1709 sealed the fate of Ukraine.
	www.bartleby.com /65/uk/Ukraine.html (2861 words)

	Hetman -- Facts, Info, and Encyclopedia article (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-20)
		The tile of hetman was given to the leader of (Click link for more info and facts about Polish Army) Polish Army and till 1581 hetman existed only during the specific campaigns and wars.
		Hetmans were main commanders of the military forces, second only to the monarch in the army's (Click link for more info and facts about chain of command) chain of command.
		Hetman office was abolished after the (Click link for more info and facts about third partition of Poland) third partition of Poland in 1795.
	www.absoluteastronomy.com /encyclopedia/H/He/Hetman.htm (443 words)

	BT Research - Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-20)
		Estimated grain consumption in the Polish Crown (Poland proper) and Prussia in 1560–70 was some 113,000 tons of wheat (or 226,000 łaszt (a łaszt, or "last," being a large bulk measure; in the case of grain, about half a ton).
		Poland, as the culturally most advanced part of the Commonwealth, with the royal court, the capital, the largest cities, the second-oldest university in Central Europe (after Prague), and the more liberal and democractic social institutions has proven an irrestable magnet for the non-Polish nobility in the Commonwealth.
		Poland, Ukraine, Moldova (Transnistria), Belarus, Russia, Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia.
	www.breathittteens.com /research.php?title=Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth (5409 words)

	ReggaeSeen.com - reggae encyclopedia - Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
		Poland and Lithuania re-established their independence, as separate countries, only in 1918.
		Estimated grain consumption in the "Crown" (Poland proper) and Prussia in 1560â“70 was some 113,000 tons of wheat (or 226,000 Åaszt (a Åaszt, or "last," being a large bulk measure; in the case of grain, about half a ton).
		After the Counter-Reformation, when the Roman Catholic Church regained power in Poland, the szlachta became almost exclusively Roman Catholic, despite the fact that Roman Catholicism was not a majority religion (the Roman Catholic and Orthodox churches counted approximately 40% of the population each, while the remaining 20% were Jews and members of various Protestant churches).
	www.reggaeseen.com /reggae/Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth (4550 words)

	Introduction and the events of the Swedish Deluge: 1655-1660
		The reign of the Vasa dynasty in Poland with the abdication of Jan Kazimierz on September 16, 1668.
		Already in 1648, Poland position was a difficult one, with a revolt brewing in the Ukraine and during the course of it an attack by Russian troops.
		the Commander in Chief of the Polish forces in Lithuania, broke the Union with Poland and surrenderead the suzerainty of Lithuania to Carl Gustav, the Swedish King.
	info-poland.buffalo.edu /classroom/potop/1655.html (1240 words)

	AllEmpires - The Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth (Full) (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-20)
		Rokosz was led by Jerzy Lubomirski, the Grand Marshal of Poland and Field Hetman of the Crown, the issue was the attempt to settle ahead of time the question of succession, in particular to promote the election 'vivente rege' (during live of king) of Duc d'Condé.
		It was the King of Poland who, after the junction of both armies, drafted the plan of the battle which was fought before Vienna on September 12, 1683, and was to be one of the decisive battles in European history.
		For even in Poland there was a suspicion — one more reason for the king’s failure —that he wanted to turn the conquered territories into a private domain for one of his sons, thus strengthening his own power and securing the future election of his descendants to the Polish throne.
	www.allempires.com /empires/polish_lit_full/polish_lit2.htm (3005 words)

	RUSSIA
		In the Polish Kingdom in the 16th century, local military commanders and administrators were known as "hetmans." The title was also used for the supreme military commander both in Poland and in Lithuania.
		My source for the Hetmans, for the subsequent Republic during the Russian Revolution, and even for some of the text here, is a Ukrainian correspondent, Max Zherebkin, who cites as his sources Ukraine: A History, by Orest Subtelny [University of Toronto Press, 1988] and the on-line Encylopedia of Ukraine.
		Catherine subsequently obtained the last piece of the Ukraine from Poland by the Partition of 1793.
	www.friesian.com /russia.htm (9004 words)

	Stanis³aw Koniecpolski http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanisla - forum.poland.com
		Hetman Koniecpolski Freeing People Taken into Captivity by the Tatars, painted by Henryk Rodakowski (fl-and-white reproduction, picture lost during the Second World War).In 1632, few months before his death, Zygmunt III Waza awarded to Koniecpolski the position of Grand Crown Hetman.
		After the king´s death, the hetman played a major role directing political affairs in the Commonwealth and supported the free election of the son of Zygmunt, W³adys³aw IV Waza in 1632.
		Hetman Miko³aj PotockiOne of the Koniecpolski´s greatest victories was during the winter campaign against the Turks in 1644.
	forum.poland.com /index.php?showtopic=1286 (3447 words)

	Radvilos Family
		During negotiations with Poland he demanded that the grand prince resided in Lithuania, did not accept the union project and considered it worse than death.
		At the behest of Radvilas data were collected for a detailed map of Lithuania the final version of which was printed in 1613 in Amsterdam.
		Formerly the whole block was occupied by the mansion belonging to Mikalojus the Black, and later on by the brick Renaissance one built by great hetman Jonusas Radvila in the XVII c.
	www.ldm.lt /Muziejusirpadaliniai/Radvilos.en.htm (1680 words)

	Rzeszow, Poland (Pages 17 - 24) (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-20)
		were in charge of this defense: the Hetman of the city, the Hetman of the suburbs, and the Hetman of the Jews.
		In 1627 Piotr Fanialk filled the Hetman of the suburbs the position of the city Hetman was filled by Lucas Gajdziak and Moshe Aptarz filled the Hetman of the Jews.
		Hetman is the head of the military that was elected by the King.
	www.jewishgen.org /yizkor/rzeszow/rze017.html (7133 words)

	Ukraine History
		Lithuania began to expand eastward and southward, supplanting the Tatars in Ukraine.
		Hetman Ivan Mazepa, presiding over a diminished Cossack state, sought once again to free Ukraine from Russian domination; he thus joined Sweden against Russia in the Northern War, but their defeat at Poltava by Czar Peter I in 1709 sealed the fate of Ukraine.
		The last of Ukraine's hetmans was forced by Empress Catherine II to resign in 1764; the Zaporizhzhya Sich was razed by Russian troops in 1775, and Ukraine, its political autonomy terminated, was divided into three provinces.
	www.dompavlov.com /history.htm (2129 words)

	Ukraine Elections 350 Years Ago (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-20)
		The hetman realized he had been deceived by the cunning Russian tsar when the latter did not allow his boyars to copy a swearing-in ceremony of Ukrainians in Pereyaslav.
		Khmelnitsky was looking for allies in Sweden, Poland, Turkey, Lithuania, Moldovia and the Crimean Khanate when his suspicious death of cold put an end to his diplomatic activity.
		To weaken Ukraine, Poland and Russia signed the Andrusov Pact in 1667, giving the right bank of the country to Poland and the left-bank, as well as the right to appoint and dismiss hetmans, to Moscow.
	www.ukraine-observer.com /articles/220/871 (1368 words)

	Polish Society & Government
		Moreover during the seventeenth century, the hetman (commander of the armed forces) was appointed for life.
		The Kings did control about one sixth of Poland's land and received some tax revenue from a variety of outdated poll and land taxes and custom duties that failed to tap into the main areas of economic activity.
		From 1580, Faustus Socinus lived in Poland (Krakow) in one of many Socinian congregations; at their peak, there were about 40,000 Socinians in Poland.
	history.wisc.edu /sommerville/351/351-103.htm (1339 words)

	Origin - Notes - Knowledge Base, HouseofNames.com
		Soon Poland and Lithuania were competing for Volhynia and Galicia and Galicia was annexed to the Poles.
		In 1385 Poland and Lithuania were united, later termed the Commonwealth, with the marriage of the Queen of Poland and the Grand Prince of Lithuania, and the Ukrainians lost self government.
		However, it was customary for Cossack hetmans and noble houses to have coats of arms.
	www.houseofnames.com /xq/asp/sId./kbId.212/qx/knowledgebase.htm (1286 words)

	Culture of Ukraine - History and ethnic relations, Urbanism, architecture, and the use of space
		Lithuania controlled most of the Ukrainian lands except for the Halych and Volyn principalities, subjugated after much struggle by Poland.
		The Grand Duchy of Lithuania adopted the administrative practices and the legal system of Rus and a state language that was Old Slavonic, heavily imbued with vernacular Ukrainian and Belorussian.
		Poland recognized Moscow's suzerainty over Kiev and the lands east of the Dnipro, and the Ukrainian hetmanate was gradually subjugated by Moscow.
	www.everyculture.com /To-Z/Ukraine.html (8959 words)

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