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Topic: History of French systematic anatomists

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History of anatomy in the 19th century

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Academy of Gundishapur

Blood Atonement

Gormadoc Brandybuck

	History of Medicine
		The history of medical science, considered as a part of the general history of civilization, should logically begin in Mesopotamia, where tradition and philological investigation placed the cradle of the human race.
		The former alone was a serious opponent since, as an anatomist, he looked for the seat of the disease in the solid parts, rather than in the four fundamental humors (blood, mucus, fl and yellow gall) and their different mixtures.
		Of Italian and English anatomists are to be mentioned: Paolo Mascagni (1752-1815; lymphatic vessels, comparative anatomy), Antonio Scarpa (1747-1832; structure of the bones, organs of sense), the brothers John and Charles Ball, the latter (1774-1842) known also as a physiologist (brain, nerves); and Robert Knox (1793-1862; comparative anatomy).
	www.catholicity.com /encyclopedia/m/medicine,history_of.html (17759 words)

	Paris School
		Shortly after 180O, medical science was revolutionized by a clutch of French professors, whose work was shaped by the opportunities created by the French Revolution for physicians to use big public hospitals for research.
		Like other contemporary French hospital physicians, he was accused of showing greater concern for diagnosis than for therapy - but this stemmed not from indifference to the sick but from a deep awareness of therapeutic limitations.
		Overall, the leading lights among French hospital doctors were more confident about diagnosis than cure, although Laënnec highlighted the Hippocratic concept of the healing power of nature - the power of the body to restore itself to health.
	www.history.vt.edu /Jones/priv_hist3724/19cMedPractice/ParisSchool.html (1402 words)

	Canadians for the Advancement of Health Research::. alternatives to animal research
		The first systematic observations that can be analyzed through what remains of the ancient documents date back to the classical times, when Aristotle (384-322 BC) stressed the interdependence of the soul and body.
		Other anatomists thought that the pulmonary artery was filled with blood and not with air and that the mitral valve allowed the blood flow in only one direction.
		Claude Bernard, Magendie's student, studied induced forms of diabetes in dogs and noticed a connection with the wall of the fourth ventricle in the brain but he never understood the role of the pancreas in diabetes and he thought that it was a disease of the liver instead.
	www.cah-research.com /history/asynopsis.htm (1983 words)

	Feminism and Women's Studies: The Subjection of Women
		History, which is now so much better understood than formerly, teaches another lesson: if only by showing the extraordinary susceptibility of human nature to external influences, and the extreme variableness of those of its manifestations which are supposed to be most universal and uniform.
		But in history, as in travelling, men usually see only what they already had in their own minds; and few learn much from history, who do not bring much with them to its study.
		The actual exercise, in a habitual or systematic manner, of outdoor occupations, or such as cannot be carried on at home, would by this principle be practically interdicted to the greater number of married women.
	feminism.eserver.org /history/docs/subjection-of-women.txt/view (12178 words)

	[No title]
		HISTORY OF MATHEMATICS Volume 2 A Century of Mathematics in America Part II Edited by Peter Duren with the assistance of Richard A. Askey Uta C. Merzbach American Mathematical Society.
		The leading "pure" scientists on the L.SS faculty were Peirce, the botanist Asa Gray, the anatomists Jeifries Wyman, and the German-educated Swiss naturalist Louis Agassiz (1807- 73), already internationally famous when he joined the faculty of the LSS as professor of zoology and geology in 1847.
		It is significant that the last three chapters of Bertrand Russell's History of Western Philosophy are devoted to William James, John Dewey, and the "philosophy of logical analysis" underlying mathematics, as Russell saw it.
	www.math.harvard.edu /history/birkhoffbook/birkhoff.txt (20981 words)

	Encyclopedia
		The History is valued for the wealth of information it presents about ancient Greece and for its charming style.
		Thucydides was the first great Attic prose writer, and in his History of the Peloponnesian War he emerges as the first critical historian.
		Outstanding among the 19th-century poets of the postliberation period is Aristotelis Valaoritis (1824–79), a poet noted for his vigor and descriptive imagery who wrote in demotic Greek.
	www.historychannel.com /encyclopedia/article.jsp?link=FWNE.fw..gr088600.a (5842 words)

	CAAT: Animals and Alternatives in Testing: History, Science, and Ethics (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-01)
		CONTACT US The Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing is an academic center affiliated with the Division of Toxicological Sciences in the Department of Environmental Health Sciences of the Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health.
		The first attempts to classify and systematize knowledge of the natural world were undertaken by the Greeks.
		Systematic attempts to organize data into a coherent system, attempted by early Greek scientists such as Aristotle, Hippocrates, and the astronomer Ptolemy, vanished in the Middle Ages as the quest for knowledge of the natural world was perceived as a challenge to the authority of the church and an inappropriate subject of study.
	caat.jhsph.edu /pubs/animal_alts/chap1.htm (1174 words)

	History of Medicine - Far Beginnings: a brief history of medicine (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-01)
		Greek history was over-shadowed by war; in the Iliad and the Odyssey, there are numerous mentions of the treatment of arrow and sword wounds by individuals defined as doctors.
		His fame as anatomist and experimental physiologist was based on the anatomy of the pig.
		He studied the effects of transection of the spinal cord and knew of the cranial nerves, the difference between sensory and motor nerves, and the significance of the laryngeal nerve.
	umanitoba.ca /faculties/medicine/history/histories/briefhis.html (4195 words)

	Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-01)
		Funchal 1888), physician, anatomist and pathologist at Freiburg, described 'clumps of epithelium-like protoplasmic cells lying in the interalveolar tissue of the pancreas' in 1869.
		Surprisingly, Osler omits comment on the history of syphilis, which is said to have presented in epidemic fashion in 1495 at the siege of Naples, transmitted by Spaniards contaminated by a New World ailment.
		Dubbed the French disease, or the Neapolitan disease, by sufferers of differing nationalities, a neutral term eventually prevailed - the name of the shepherd 'Syphilis' who is punished in a poem by Hieronymus Fracastorius (1484-1553) of Verona, for raising an altar to false gods.
	www.rcsi.ie /library/History_of_Medicine/Physical_Examination/index.asp?id=1093&pid=1093&jid=33&jpid=1086 (1806 words)

	[No title]
		Amongst the French, on the contrary, the taste for general ideas would seem to have grown to so ardent a passion, that it must be satisfied on every occasion.
		It can hardly be believed how many facts naturally flow from the philosophical theory of the indefinite perfectibility of man, or how strong an influence it exercises even on men who, living entirely for the purposes of action and not of thought, seem to conform their actions to it, without knowing anything about it.
		The French made most surprising advances in the exact sciences at the very time at which they were finishing the destruction of the remains of their former feudal society; yet this sudden fecundity is not to be attributed to democracy, but to the unexampled revolution which attended its growth.
	www.jamesgoulding.com /americanhistoryebooks/Early_Republic/democracy_in_america_volume_2.txt (19856 words)

	This Month in Scottish History - October
		The son of a sea captain who disappeared when he was a young child, his formal education was minimal though he was influenced by the antiquarian and natural history enthusiasms of two uncles.
		The Scots invaded England in response to a plea from their French allies who had just been defeated by the English at the Battle of Crecy.
		A nephew of great anatomists William and John Hunter, He was educated at Oxford and became a fellow of the Royal College of Physicians and the Royal Society.
	www.electricscotland.com /history/shepherd/october.htm (2954 words)

	History of Science: Origins of Evolutionary Theory (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-01)
		It is one of the longest lasting and most influential metaphors in the history of ideas, and its impact on natural science has been central, "the greatest synthetic scheme in pre-Darwinian biology" (2).
		Another very prominent French scientist, Georges Cuvier (1769-1832), whose nickname "the dictator of biology" indicates his power and influence in French science early in the 19th century, strongly opposed Buffon's notion that species were mutable (12).
		Coleridge's hostility to the political implications of French science is indicated by, among other things, his letter to the prime minister Lord Liverpool (in 1817) that the religious, political, and social upheavals in England were the direct results of the diseased "speculative science" produced by the French Revolution.
	www.mala.bc.ca /~johnstoi/darwin/sect3.htm (12106 words)

	Owen's Position in the History of Anatomical Science (1894)
		The doctrine of form, whether in the shape of anatomy, histology, embryology, taxonomy (that is, systematic arrangement), or distribution, has become the business of the 'morphologist,' to whom it is a matter of no essential importance whether the subjects of his inquiries are alive or have been dead for millions of years.
		As Buffon opposed the extreme systematizers, who seemed to think it the end of science, not so much to know about an object as to be able to name it and fit it into their system, so Daubenton insisted on the study of each animal as an individual whole.
		So, for the anatomists, the shell of a tortoise and the shell of a crab were merely analogous structures; while the bones of the arm of a man and those of the wing of a bird were homologous.
	aleph0.clarku.edu /huxley/SM4/Owen.html (9457 words)

	Donald R. Kelley \| The Rise of Prehistory \| Journal of World History, 14.1 \| The History Cooperative
		Friedrich Hellwald's Cultural History in its Natural Development (1875) began with the history of the earth and "geogeny" and the beginning of life before examining "the dawn of culture"—the transition between prehistory and history—with reference to contemporary anthropology and archaeology.
		Another example was Gustav Kolb, who turned, for a better understanding of the earliest period of history, away from theologians and philosophers and archaeologists to geologists, paleontologists, anatomists, and natural scientists (Physiker) for enlightenment, and especially to the ideas of Darwin and Haekel, which produced a new "Copernican revolution" in the human sciences.
		The old theme of the four world monarchies was replaced by the modern succession of empires—Spanish, English, Dutch, French, and American—as a way of periodizing the grand narrative of Western history, and historians of all nationalities gave interpretations of the consequences of the opening of the new hemisphere.
	www.historycooperative.org /journals/jwh/14.1/kelley.html (5709 words)

	The Literature of the New Sciences
		Hutton’s systematic exposition of his ideas, The Theory of the Earth (1795), lengthy and indigestible as it was, sounded alarm bells among the defenders of religious orthodoxy.
		It was the perception of his willingness to trespass on the domain of forbidden knowledge—and to use his public fame in support of his efforts—that led Mary Shelley to use him as a model for her character Waldman, the charismatic chemistry professor who inspires Victor Frankenstein.
		Denis R. Dean, James Hutton and the History of Geology (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1992); R. Grant, "Hutton’s Theory of the Earth," in L. Jordanova and R. Porter, eds., Images of the Earth: Essays in the History of the Environmental Sciences (Chalfont St. Giles: British Society for the History of Science, 1979), pp.
	www.unh.edu /history/golinski/paper7.htm (8885 words)

	Anatomy Muscle -- Recommendations and Resources (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-01)
		From that of Medicine it consists of a knowledge of the exact form, position, size and relationship of the various structures of the healthy human body, and to this study the term descriptive or topographical human anatomy is given, though it is often, less happily, spoken of as ''anthropotomy''.
		So intricate is the human body that only a small number of professional human anatomists, after years of patient observation, are complete masters of all its details; most of them specialize on certain parts, such as the brain or viscera, contenting themselves with a good working knowledge of the rest.
		See History of anatomy for a history of anatomy, including human anatomy.
	www.becomingapediatrician.com /health/4/anatomy-muscle.html (1352 words)

	On the Origin of Stasis: Battson, Art
		The natural history of life on earth is systematically top to bottom, not bottom to top as Darwinian theory predicts.
		Both Darwinian gradualism and punctuated equilibrium, however, predict that a systematic branching pattern should be evident if all life has arisen from a common ancestor (see Figures 2 and 3).
		In considering the origin of phyla and the stability of the major body plans, it is quite conceivable that scientists, reflecting upon the empirical evidence of the history of life on earth might come to the conclusion that mechanisms exist which prevent major evolutionary change from occurring on a gradual step-by-step basis.
	www.leaderu.com /orgs/arn/abstasis.htm (7708 words)

	AAS Biographical Memoirs - Martin Fritz Glaessner 1906-1989
		An interest in natural history emerged (he claimed) not from his broad education so much as from being so bored whilst playing the obligatory football that he paid more attention to the interesting-looking fossil shells eroding out of the pitch under his scuffing boots than to his obligations to the team.
		Already a Research Associate of the Museum of Natural History in Vienna at the age of 16 (in 1923) and two years before university and the law, Glaessner published three papers on crabs and their geological context in the Vienna Basin before he was twenty.
		This systematic reconstruction of the fossil succession began in the 1920s in the Dutch East Indies (van der Vlerk, Umbgrove, Leupold, Tan Sin Hok) as the so-called Indo-Pacific letter classification of the Cainozoic, and its use spread to India, northern Australia, and the islands of the western Pacific.
	www.asap.unimelb.edu.au /bsparcs/aasmemoirs/glaessne.htm (8963 words)

	The Evolution of Modern Medicine By William Osler - Chapter 5
		Here and there among the great anatomists of the period we read of an experiment, but it was the art of observation, the art of Hippocrates, not the science of Galen, not the carefully devised experiment to determine function, that characterized their work.
		Equally in the history of science and of medicine, 1542 is a starred year, marked by a revolution in our knowledge alike of Macrocosm and Microcosm.
		Little did he dream that his happy days as student and teacher were finished, that his work as an anatomist was over, that the most brilliant and epoch-making part of his career as a professor was a thing of the past.
	www.nalanda.nitc.ac.in /resources/english/etext-project/history/medicine/chapter5.html (11041 words)

	A History of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine in Canada
		Although there are several books and articles dealing with the History of Pathology in general, none as yet describe in a comprehensive fashion, the evolution and development of this medical specialty with emphasis on CANADA.
		Books and individual papers on the History of Pathology in other countries have also appeared over the years, and are helpful in establishing general trends and patterns.
		It was only with the coming of the Renaissance that systematic anatomic and pathological studies and their dissemination laid the foundations of modern knowledge.
	cap.medical.org /history_pathology_laboratory-med.htm (2974 words)

	InfoDome - History of Medicine in the Norland Collection
		This general history of medicine (in Spanish) is organized chronologically and geographically, with chapters on prehistory; ancient civilizations in the Near East, Africa, Asia, and the Americas; Islamic contributions; medieval and early modern Christian contributions; and modern medicine, including pharmacology.
		Knight's overview of the history of human anatomy and physiology is organized by structures: heart and circulatory system, respiratory system, digestive system, urinary system, brain and central nervous system, ears, eyes, blood and lymph, the cell, endocrine system, sex organs, pregnancy and the unborn child, and dissection.
		Poincaré's history and medical geography of diseases (in French) begins with general considerations of malarial diseases before turning to typhoid fever, relapsing fever, typhus fever, intermittent fever, smallpox, measles, scarlet fever, diphtheria, tuberculosis, leprosy, cholera, yellow fever, and plague.
	infodome.sdsu.edu /about/depts/spcollections/rarebooks/norland_bibliography.shtml (12021 words)

	Isaac Land \| Bread and Arsenic: Citizenship from the Bottom Up in Georgian London \| Journal of Social History, 39.1 \| ...
		Moreover, scholarly interest in the ways that whiteness is an arbitrary construction, with a history of its own and variations in usage across time and space, has made Jordan's approach look one-sided in a different way.
		Geography books and natural history treatises noted differences of color, along with variations in hair, lips, and body shape, but they devoted much more attention to the diversity of human behavior (clothing, political organization, and consumer habits).
		She acknowledges important debts to intellectual histories by Clarence Glacken, Traces on the Rhodian Shore: Nature and Culture in Western Thought from Ancient Times to the End of the Eighteenth Century (Berkeley, 1967) and Michael Adas, Machines as the Measure of Men: Science, Technology, and Ideologies of Western Dominance (Ithaca, 1989).
	www.historycooperative.org /journals/jsh/39.1/land.html (10004 words)

	Famous Americans, Books Famous Americans, Famous American Scientists,
		Good- An Interesting History of the first great struggle in which the Fearless and Brilliant Leader of the People championed the cause of humanity in the memorable campaign of 1896.
		It recounts his heroic and untiring efforts in the Halls of Congress, at the Chicago Convention, and in his great campaign throughout the country; his matchless oratory; the splendid achievements won, and the brilliant outlook for the future of Bi-Metalism, and a Biographical sketch of Mrs.
		Good- "The main object is to present the general reading public with a condensed view of the history, methods,and results of astronomical research..." 112 engravings, and 5 foldout star maps.
	www.beecreekbooks.com /categories/American_History/famous_americans.html (10765 words)

	Bell
		Of Bell’s work there have been various editions; and a French translation, including a Journal kept by M. de Lange, attaché to the embassy to Pekin, was published on the continent, where it became very popular.
		On cutting a spinal nerve, the older anatomists found both feeling and motion to be lost by the part which is thence supplied with nervous energy, and they concluded that the nerve carried both qualities conjointly.
		But Ball looked deeper into the matter; and he was rewarded by the discovery that the two roots, by which the spinal nerves are connected with the vertebral medulla, derive and bear from them different qualities – the anterior root conveying the motor power, and the posterior that of sensation, or the sensor power.
	www.electricscotland.com /history/nation/bell.htm (6543 words)

	Modern History Sourcebook: John Stuart Mill: The Subjection of Women
		But French history counts two kings who have voluntarily given the direction of affairs during many years, the one to his mother, the other to his sister: one of them, Charles VIII, was a mere boy, but in doing so he followed the intentions of his father Louis XI, the ablest monarch of his age.
		But, looking at women as they are known in experience, it may be said of them, with more truth than belongs to most other generalisations on the subject, that the general bent of their talents is towards the practical.
		This statement is conformable to all the public history of women, in the present and the past.
	www.fordham.edu /halsall/mod/jsmill-women.html (14383 words)

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