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	Ned Wright's Cosmology Tutorial - Part 1
		In 1929 Hubble [1, 2, 3] published a claim that the radial velocities of galaxies are proportional to their distance.
		The redshift of a galaxy is a measure of its radial velocity, and it can be measured using a spectrograph to determine the Doppler shift.
		Redshift surveys of very large regions confirm this tendency toward smoothness on the largest scales, even though nearby galaxies show large inhomogeneities like the Virgo Cluster and the supergalactic plane.
	www.astro.ucla.edu /~wright/cosmo_01.htm (1560 words)

	[No title]
		The redshift (or blueshift) of a galaxy is the shifting of its spectral features to longer (or shorter) wavelengths primarily due to the combination of Doppler motions and the general expansion of the Universe.
		Redshift, $z$, is defined in wavelength as $$ z \ = \ {{\lambda_o - \lambda_e}\over {\lambda_e}} \ = \ {{\lambda_o}\over{\lambda_e}} - 1$$ \noindent where the subscripts $0$ and $e$ refer to observed and emitted.
		Redshifts are measured spectroscopically by measuring the shift of spectral features of known wavelength and frequency.
	www.cfa.harvard.edu /~huchra/zcat/redshift.htm (634 words)

	THE RED SHIFT
		Redshift, change, or shift, in the light radiated by an object, such as a star or galaxy, that indicates the object’s motion.
		Redshift and Hubble’s law are vital tools to scientists who study the structure, evolution, and age of the universe.
		Their redshifts are so large that the radiation they emit in the ultraviolet range (with wavelengths shorter than visible light) reaches Earth in the infrared range (with wavelengths longer than visible light).
	www.geocities.com /beyondearth2001/redshift.htm (1677 words)

	Redshift - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		This Doppler redshift phenomenon was first predicted and observed in the nineteenth century as scientists began to consider the dynamical implications of the wave-nature of light.
		Another redshift mechanism accounts for the famous observation that the spectral redshifts of distant galaxies, quasars, and intergalactic gas clouds are observed to increase proportionally with their distance to the observer.
		Hubble's law of the correlation between redshifts and distances is required by models of cosmology derived from general relativity that have a metric expansion of space.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Redshift (5382 words)

	Measuring the Distance to Nearby Galaxies
		Redshift is a term used to describe situations when an astronomical object is observed to being moving away from the observer, such that emission or absorption features in the object's spectum are observed to have shifted toward longer (red) wavelengths.
		Hubble concluded that the fainter and smaller the galaxy, the more distant it is, and the faster it is moving away from us, or that the recessional velocity of a galaxy is proportional to its distance from us:
		The extremely large redshifts of various quasars suggest that they are moving away from the Earth at tremendous velocities (i.e., approximately 90 percent the speed of light) and thereby constitute some of the most distant objects in the universe.
	astro.wku.edu /astr106/Hubble_intro.html (779 words)

	Debunking Gentry's "New Redshift Interpretation" Cosmology
		This hydrogen radiates as a fl body and the radiation is redshifted due to the difference in gravitational potential between it and the center of the universe to the 2.7 K CMBR that we observe.
		In its simplest form, the Hubble relation states that the apparent velocity (as inferred by the observed redshift of the light from the galaxy) of a galaxy is related to the distance to the galaxy (r) by
		As mentioned in the description of the derivation of (2) for the redshift of the fl body emission of the hot hydrogen shell, the expression diverges to infinity for values of r near R and thus there is very little constraint on the temperature of the shell.
	www.talkorigins.org /faqs/nri.html (5821 words)

	redshift (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-13)
		The measure of this redshifting of light is given by the quantity z, which is defined as the change in wavelength of a given spectral line divided by the laboratory standard wavelength for that same spectral line.
		The quantisations of the redshift that were noted in these studies were on a relatively small scale, but analysis revealed a basic quantisation that was at the root of the effect, of which the others were simply higher multiples.
		Redshift is determined by observing spectral lines of specific elements in a source, and noting how far they have moved from their laboratory (rest frame) wavelength.
	www.setterfield.org /Redshift.htm (13517 words)

	A New Redshift Interpretation
		Hubble spoke for most cosmologists of his time when he forthrightly admitted an extreme distaste for such a possibility, saying it should be accepted only as a last resort.
		The Hubble relation and 2.7K CBR scenarios are widely understood as confirming the existence of expansion redshifts.
		In it the Hubble redshifts are now interpreted solely in terms of relativistic Doppler and Einstein gravitational redshifts, all cast within the framework of a finite, nonhomogeneous, vacuum-gravity universe with cosmic center (C) near the Galaxy.
	www.halos.com /printer.htm?page=/reports/arxiv-1998-redshift.htm (2273 words)

	Astronomical Redshift
		Astronomical redshift is the lengthening of emitted radiation as detected by observers.
		Cosmological redshift is caused by the relativistic expansion of the universe, as quantified by the Hubble constant, H
		These redshifts are a result of the stretching of space time, as postulated by general relativity, and not by radial motion.
	www.asterism.org /tutorials/tut29-1.htm (906 words)

	Plasma Theory of Hubble Redshift of Galaxies
		redshift proportional to distance) is usually taken as evidence (if not proof) for the picture of an expanding universe in general and the Big Bang theory in particular.
		Also, the Hubble law appears to be based on rather limited data sets, and in particular has not been systematically examined for its strict validity throughout the whole of the electromagnetic spectrum, especially for wavelengths of 1m and more where, according to the theory below, one should expect the redshift mechanism to disappear.
		Even though this redshift mechanism has a statistical nature (due to the irregularity of the plasma field), it is very much different from scattering (which has been suggested by other people as being responsible for the redshift (see the Cosmology Discussion page on my website physicsmyths.org.uk for more on this).
	www.plasmaphysics.org.uk /research/redshift.htm (807 words)

	It is time for a new look at astronomy and our universe.
		Since redshifts and blueshifts had already been observed in nearby stars, astronomers were predisposed to accept the Doppler effect as the cause of the redshift of distant galaxies, as discovered by Hubble.
		Quite simply, the Hubble law, which relates the redshift of distant galaxies to their distance, may be not due to the Doppler effect, as is universally accepted in the astronomical community, but could be due to the effect of intergalactic gravitational fields on light.
		The redshift of distant galaxies is due at least in part to the effect of intergalactic gravitational fields on light.
	www.geocities.com /newastronomy/Shapiro.htm (3602 words)

	Expanding Universe
		Hubble, who had been the first to establish that the universe included many other galaxies outside of our own, noticed something else: the galaxies were receding from us at a velocity proportional to their distance.
		Determining the Hubble Constant is something of a Holy Grail for cosmologists, because it holds the key to the age of the universe.
		Because the Hubble Constant is a measure of how much space is expanding in units of distance per second, it's possible to estimate how long it would take, rolling the movie backwards, for the most distant galaxies to collide with each other and finally collapse in the Big Bang.
	archive.ncsa.uiuc.edu /Cyberia/Cosmos/ExpandUni.html (1154 words)

	Edwin Hubble...And The Myth That He Discovered The Expanding Universe
		We shall argue that Hubble did not claim that he had found a linear velocity-distance relation, since he was unsure of the cause of a galaxy’s redshift.
		Hubble’s success was not to “discover” a relation; rather, it was to convince his colleagues that the relation was linear.
		To the best of my knowledge Hubble’s 1929 paper (3) is the only published paper where the reader is left with the view by Hubble, and now apparently universally adopted, that the linear law of redshifts applies only as a velocity-distance relation.
	home.pacbell.net /skeptica/edwinhubble.html (1451 words)

	Cosmological Redshift
		When we use Hubble's redshift law to compute distances to remote galaxies, we do so under the assumption that the original light, coming to us from thousands of millions of years ago, was emitted at essentially the same wavelengths as observed in local present-day equivalent stellar processes.
		Redshifts associated with increasingly distant galaxies may not be related to an ever-increasing speed of recession, with respect to us, or to a gravitational energy loss, or to "tired light." The light may have simply been emitted at longer wavelengths.
		Hubble constant from lensing in plasma-redshift cosmology, and intrinsic redshift of quasars Brynjolfsson, Ari, eprint arXiv:astro-ph/0411666.
	www.datasync.com /~rsf1/cosmo_rs.htm (1015 words)

	Redshift and Hubble's Law
		This phenomenon was observed as a redshift of a galaxy's spectrum.
		This redshift appeared to be larger for faint, presumably further, galaxies.
		The exact value of the Hubble constant is still somewhat uncertain, but is generally believed to be around 65 kilometers per second for every megaparsec in distance.
	starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov /docs/StarChild/questions/redshift.html (501 words)

	Galactic Redshifts and Supernova Light Curves
		The latest alleged argument for a recession-related redshift is the observed change in the shape of the light curves of supernovae in distant galaxies, which appears to expand exactly by the same factor as the wavelength itself.
		As suggested on my website plasmaphysics.org.uk under Plasma Theory of Hubble Redshift of Galaxies, the reason for the redshift could be the small scale electric field due to the intergalactic plasma.
		The overall reduction of the amplitude is therefore inversely proportional to the square root of the redshift.
	www.physicsmyths.org.uk /redshift.htm (540 words)

	Pioneer Anomalous Acceleration
		More explicitly: on the top of a larger redshift observed the introduced in the model corrective term as a constant acceleration results in the error to become random around zero, or it eliminates the systematic errors found in the excess redshift.
		From a photon energy loss cause of Hubble redshift view-point one would expect to see the redshift observed in the Doppler data of a distant spacecraft to be a sum of the two causes: the Doppler cause and the distance cause.
		The modified to exponential Hubble law will require some re-evaluations and the investigated global, redshift based features in the views of distant galaxies, the alleged evolutionary characteristics will disappear and a homogeneous, constant on large-scale picture will be realised.
	www2.3dresearch.com /~alistolmar/Ned2.htm (2673 words)

	06: Red Shift
		In 1929 astronomer Edwin Hubble compared the galaxies' spectra with their distances, calculated using different methods, and showed that the amount of "red shift" was proportional to distance.
		Hubble and others realized that the most obvious explanation for the "red shift" was that the galaxies were receding from Earth and each other, and the farther the galaxy, the faster the recession.
		This conclusion is based on a cosmological effect that is similar to the everyday "Doppler shift." Doppler shift is what makes a car sound lower-pitched as it moves away from you.
	www.arachnoid.com /sky/redshift.html (569 words)

	Hubbleflow
		For intergalactic space, measured and published values of the Hubble constant H (where v = Hd) are not very precise and vary between 0.1 and 10 electrons per cubic metre.
		According to this tired light theory the Hubble constant H can be thought of as a measure of the electron density of intergalactic space, n.
		To show an expanding universe, galaxies have to be in the ‘Hubble flow” and it is known that this starts at about 6 or 7 million light year away (some say 50 million light years away).
	www.lyndonashmore.com /Hubbleflow.html (1060 words)

	Cosmology's Missing Mass Problems- Part 5
		When Hubble and Humason first announced their systematic redshift-distance findings for spiral nebulae, Humason cautioned their colleagues that what they were calling apparent radial velocities might not really be velocities.
		The idea behind cosmological redshift is that spectral elements from remote locations (in other galaxies/spiral nebulae, for example) were generated at essentially the same wavelengths as for local sources, but were somehow shifted.
		Regardless of the manner of how light gets cosmologically redshifted, the redshift, as currently understood, is tied to the unverifiable assumption that the unit electrical charge (the charge associated with electrons and protons) is a space-and-time constant, even in the remotest parts of space and at the longest times ago.
	www.datasync.com /~rsf1/missmas5.htm (701 words)

	Galaxies and the Universe - Large-Scale Structure
		Redshift surveys are now available for Abell clusters (since velocity dispersions require multiple objects anyway), for Zwicky galaxies and their southern counterparts from the CfA and SSRS groups; and for selected deep "postage-stamp" areas.
		Hamilton, Kluwer 1998), a cluster or other structure embedded in the Hubble expansion will have distinct signatures in a space-redshift slice depending on whether it is overall expanding (even if decelerating from the general expansion), just turning around from the expansion, or collapsing toward a relaxed structure.
		As the cluster finally decouples from the Hubble flow, collapses, and eventually becomes dynamically relaxed, we get the familiar "finger-of-God" effect in which the internal velocities become very large, much larger than the differential Hubble flow across the cluster since the depth of the potential well is significant.
	www.astr.ua.edu /keel/galaxies/largescale.html (1770 words)

	Edwin Hubble - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		that the redshift of distant galaxies is due to the Doppler effect induced by the expansion of the universe.
		In 1929 Hubble and Humason formulated the empirical Redshift Distance Law of galaxies, nowadays termed simply Hubble's law, which, if the redshift is interpreted as a measure of recession speed, is consistent with the solutions of Einstein’s equations of general relativity for an homogeneous, isotropic expanding space de Sitter universe or just de Sitter space.
		Hubble, A relation between distance and radial velocity among extra-galactic nebulae, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences Volume 15 (1929)
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Edwin_Hubble (1141 words)

	Hubble's diagram and cosmic expansion -- Kirshner 101 (1): 8 -- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
		Revisions in Hubble's original distance scale account for significant changes in the Hubble constant from 1920 to the present as compiled by John Huchra of the Harvard–Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics.
		Each point in this plot shows the difference at each redshift between the measured apparent brightness and the expected location in the Hubble diagram in a universe that is expanding without any acceleration or deceleration.
		The hint of a turnover in the data at the highest redshifts, near z = 1, suggests that we may be seeing past the era of acceleration driven by dark energy back to the era of deceleration dominated by dark matter.
	www.pnas.org /cgi/content/full/101/1/8 (4854 words)

	The Search for Two Numbers
		The "two numbers" that cosmology chased for so long were the Hubble Constant (how fast the universe is expanding) and the age of the universe (when it began.) This search was the "Key Project" for which the Hubble Space Telescope was built.
		You can't determine a galaxy's distance by its redshift because Arp has documented hundreds of cases where galaxies of different redshifts are grouped together at the same distance.
		Arp was one of Hubble's students, and, like Hubble, based his research on careful observations more than on theoretical considerations.
	www.thunderbolts.info /tpod/2004/arch/040903redshift.htm (729 words)

	Do Atoms Get Bigger as the Universe Expands?
		In 1929, Hubble reported that the light from distant galaxies is redshifted.
		H is called Hubble's constant; Hubble's original value for H was 550 kilometres per second per megaparsec (km/s/Mpc).
		Hubble's redshift formula does not imply that the Earth is in particularly bad odour in the universe.
	math.ucr.edu /home/baez/physics/Relativity/GR/expanding_universe.html (1091 words)

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