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	Language - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		Humans have also invented (or arguably in some cases discovered) many other languages, including constructed human languages such as Esperanto or Klingon, programming languages such as Python or Ruby, and various mathematical formalisms.
		Human languages are usually referred to as natural languages, and the science studying them is linguistics.
		One should be careful about the underlying classification principle for groups of languages which have apparently a geographical name: besides areal linguistic units, the taxa of the genetic classification (language families) are often given names which themselves or parts of which refer to geographical areas.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Language (1788 words)

	The Third Culture - Chapter 13
		Language is a complex, specialized skill, which develops in the child spontaneously without conscious effort or formal instruction, is deployed without awareness of its underlying logic, is qualitatively the same in every individual, and is distinct from more general abilities to process information or behave intelligently.
		The view of language that suffuses public discourse — that people assume both in the sciences and in the humanities — is that language is a cultural artifact that was invented at a certain point in history and that gets transmitted to children by the example of role models or by explicit instruction in schools.
		They've suggested that language appeared as a by-product of the laws of growth and form of the human brain, or perhaps as an accidental by-product of selection for something else, and they deny that language is an adaptation.
	www.edge.org /documents/ThirdCulture/u-Ch.13.html (5369 words)

	Natural language - Open Encyclopedia (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-06)
		The term natural language is used to distinguish languages spoken by humans for general-purpose communication from constructs such as computer-programming languages or the "languages" used in the study of formal logic, especially mathematical logic.
		In the philosophy of language, the term ordinary language is sometimes used as synonymous with natural (as opposed to mathematical or logical) language.
		Constructed languages such as Esperanto that have evolved to the point of having native speakers may also be considered natural languages.
	open-encyclopedia.com /Human_language (130 words)

	Chimpanzee communications and the evolution of human language
		Gould proposes that language is an example of what he calls a spandrel, or an exaption: a trait which, having evolved for one reason, is later used for another.
		Language consists of discrete words, while human calls fall along a continuum that stretches from laughter to giggling to snorts to cries to sobs.
		In humans, the early development of protolanguage is accompanied by the development of a 'gestural complex' that allows an child to indicate an object by pointing and signal his requests.
	www.gps.caltech.edu /~rkopp/collegepapers/chimps.html (3032 words)

	Natural Human Language [encyclopedia]
		Language is the system of speech used by humans as a means of communication, which is a universal characteristic of the human species.
		In most of W Europe, the situation is straightforward, because language boundaries tend to coincide with the boundaries of nation-states, and the languages of France, Germany, Italy, etc are not mutually intelligible.
		The designation of 'language' status is therefore dependent on a wide variety of social, linguistic, and political considerations, and as a result, estimates of the number of living languages in the world (usually ranging between 4000 and 6000) are inevitably uncertain, and should be accepted with caution.
	artzia.com /Society/Language (1476 words)

	Non-human primates and language: paper
		The language competence of non-human primates is one of the most controversial issues in present-day linguistics, with disbelief ranging from bored indifference to vitriolic accusations of fraud.
		Yerkish, as the language is named, uses "a grammar of the correlational type, in which rules of sentence formation specify permissible combinations of word types, the word types being based on semantic attributes." (Wallman 1992:18) The vocabulary of this language consists of lexigrams.
		Language is not just about expressing oneself - which is roughly what Washoe and Lana could do - but about how individuals structure their interactions with one another, which entails the capacity to act in response to the expressions of other individuals.
	www.angelfire.com /sc2/nhplanguage/ftpaper.html (11159 words)

	Does "Language" equal "Human Language?" (1)
		This hitherto ignored level of social and family language -- called "pre-language" by some because it is deficient in the elaborated structures characteristic of "full-blown" language (mostly literary), and full of idioms and formulaic speech -- is the missing link in the evolution of language, and also includes primate comprehension.
		Language is the last battleground of evolution in the academy, with linguistics as the last bastion of resistance.
		Human languages are systemic shadows from this point of view, but we make up for our lack of conciseness by being able to link clauses, do movement, insert lexical items, etc.
	www.enformy.com /dma-an1.htm (3052 words)

	ANTHROPOLOGY: ON THE ORIGINS OF HUMAN LANGUAGE
		A view currently held by many anthropologists and linguistics researchers is that the remarkable flexibility of human language is achieved at least in part through the human invention of grammar, a recursive set of rules that allows the generation of sentences of any desired complexity.
		But many researchers hold a contrary view, that language evolved gradually, shaped by natural selection, and that the cognitive prerequisites of language are already present in the great apes and antedated the split of our hominid ancestors from the chimpanzee line, probably by several million years.
		The spontaneous emergence of sign languages among deaf communities everywhere confirms that gestural communication is as natural to the human condition as is spoken language.
	scienceweek.com /2004/sa041203-3.htm (1366 words)

	Natural language -- Facts, Info, and Encyclopedia article (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-06)
		Natural language is also considered a field of weak (The branch of computer science that deal with writing computer programs that can solve problems creatively) artificial intelligence.
		Additionally, the indigenous signed languages of the world merit inclusion as natural languages owing to extensive linguistic analysis in the latter 20th century confirming their unique and consistent grammar, syntax, rules and visual logic dramatically unlike the spoken languages of the nations or geographic regions in which they arose.
		Natural Languages are deemed to be unsuitable for ((computer science) a language designed for programming computers) programming languages simply because they have a vast vocabulary that can be deemed infinite, complex grammatical rules and a sense of ambiguity surrounding them.
	www.absoluteastronomy.com /encyclopedia/n/na/natural_language.htm (238 words)

	Human Markup Language in Government
		Such a language or offshoot could allow for a secondary, in-depth authentication of identity, and serve to increase security by allowing individuals to divulge information only they could know or authorize (presumably) based on their personal preferences, and thus streamline both transportation screening and border screening.
		It is meant to evolve with humanity as an aid to humanity’s evolution through increasing the overall clarity of communications.
		Extensible Markup Language is a non-proprietary subset of SGML.
	xml.gov /documents/completed/huml/HumanMLinGov.htm (3792 words)

	Natural language at opensource encyclopedia (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-06)
		A natural language is one that evolved along with a culture of human native speakers who use the language for general-purpose communication.
		Languages like English, American Sign Language and Japanese are natural languages, while languages like Esperanto are called constructed languages, having been deliberately created for a specific purpose.
		Constructed languages can still have "native" speakers, if children learn it at a young age from parents who have learned the language; there are estimated to be 200-2000 native speakers of Esperanto, for example.
	wiki.tatet.com /Human_language.html (215 words)

	The Role of Language in Intelligence
		We human beings may not be the most admirable species on the planet, or the most likely to survive for another millennium, but we are without any doubt at all the most intelligent.
		Yes, and body language is a sort of language, and music is the international language (sort of) and politics is a sort of language, and the complex world of odor and olfaction is another, highly emotionally charged language, and so on.
		The expressive, information-encoding properties of real language are practically limitless (in at least some dimensions), and the powers that other species acquire in virtue of their use of proto-languages, hemi-semi-demi-languages, are indeed similar to the powers we acquire thanks to our use of real language.
	ase.tufts.edu /cogstud/papers/rolelang.htm (5675 words)

	Instinct
		The Innateness Hypothesis holds that, to a large extent, the organization of human language (i.e.
		This means that the languages we speak are not primarily cultural artifacts (like the ability to play the violin or do calculus), but rather are part of our biological endowment as human beings (like the ability to walk or to swallow food).
		Language is a complex system which is, in some sense, independent of the thoughts we convey with it.
	uts.cc.utexas.edu /~wechsler/f350syllabus.html (579 words)

	Amazon.com: Patterns in the Mind: Language and Human Nature: Books (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-06)
		Language and Human Behavior (The Jessie and John Danz Lectures) by Derek Bickerton
		Human experience, in this view, is constructed out of such principles, which operate in music, vision, and, most speculatively, in social organization.
		Jackendorf also introduces the reader to research suggesting that there are structural similarities between signed and spoken language, that creole languages are created by children, and that there is a link among adult language impairments, language development in children, and the age factor in both.
	www.amazon.com /exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/0465054625?v=glance (1326 words)

	Harvard University Press/Human Language and Our Reptilian Brain
		Using clinical evidence from speech-impaired patients, functional neuroimaging, and evolutionary biology to make his case, Philip Lieberman contends that human language is not a single separate module but a functional neurological system made up of many separate abilities.
		Language remains as it began, Lieberman argues: a device for coping with the world.
		But in a blow to human narcissism, he makes the case that this most remarkable human ability is a by-product of our remote reptilian ancestors' abilities to dodge hazards, seize opportunities, and live to see another day.
	www.hup.harvard.edu /catalog/LIEHUM.html (171 words)

	The Origin of Language and Communication
		Many evolutionary linguists believe that all human languages have descended from a single, primitive language, which itself evolved from the grunts and noises of the lower animals.
		As we mentioned earlier, the eminent linguist Noam Chomsky has championed the idea that humans are born with a built-in ‘universal grammar’—a series of biological switches for complex language that is set in place in the early years of childhood.
		Unlike human children, animals: (1) do not have a special region in the brain devoted to language; (2) possess a much smaller brain overall; and (3) lack the anatomy to speak the words they may think.
	www.trueorigin.org /language01.asp (6370 words)

	Amazon.com: Language and Human Behavior (The Jessie and John Danz Lectures): Books (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-06)
		According to Derek Bickerton, language is not simply for communication, it is the syntax of human consciousness.
		Overall, he argues that as the mind developed capacity for full language, it was also developing the capacity to formulate, hold on to, and manipulate concepts and the relations among them.
		So as the human brain developed the structures and connections to make language possible, this created the possibility of offline thought--the power to manipulate ideas well beyond the limits of ordinary "online" sensory experience and flash responses to those experiences.
	www.amazon.com /exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/0295974583?v=glance (982 words)

	Do apes use language?
		Sue Savage-Rumbaugh, a Georgia State University biology professor, says the accepted wisdom reflects a long bias and that modern studies are refuting it.
		She suspects that bonobos are using language in the wild, but since they congregate in trees in groups of about 100, "it's almost impossible to study them." And on the ground, they are silent to avoid predators.
		Thus in swamps, where plenty of footprints mark the trail, the road signs are not needed and not seen.
	whyfiles.org /058language/ape_talk.html (661 words)

	The Human Animal--Human Body lesson plan (grades 6-8)--DiscoverySchool.com (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-06)
		Human body language, including gestures and facial expressions, is used to communicate in countless subtle and complex ways.
		The origins of gestures may go back thousands of years, and a gesture may change in meaning as it is passed from one generation to the next.
		Understands that heredity, culture, and personal experience interact in shaping human behavior, and that the relative importance of these influences is not clear in most circumstances.
	school.discovery.com /lessonplans/programs/thehumananimal (1471 words)

	Human Language (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-06)
		● Human language is one of the many evidences that indicate humans are not related to the animals.
		Following are further examples of how our language does not evolve from the simple to the complex which is a reasonable prediction if evolution were true.
		This Edenic language, closest to Biblical Hebrew and best documented by Biblical citations, is proven to have been spun-off into many ancestral languages which kept breaking down into the 6000+ dialects we have today (as per The Tower of Babel saga of Genesis 11).”
	www2.gvsu.edu /~king01/Language.htm (1556 words)

	Language Miniatures (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-06)
		It is nothing less than the original native language (and an official language) of one of the EU member states.
		At the same time, though, it is one of the many languages in the world steadily losing ground to the relentless pressure of a dominant language, in this case of course English.
		This was because in English, as in most languages, the verb is the part of speech that is assigned to carry the message of whatever tense (past, present or future) we have in mind.
	home.bluemarble.net /~langmin (1258 words)

	Natural Language Processing
		Regarding language as communication requires consideration of what is said (literally), what is intended, and the relationship between the two.
		One goal of AI work in natural language is to enable communication between people and computers without resorting to memorization of complex commands and procedures.
		Not only does the ability to use and understand natural language seem to be a fundamental aspect of human intelligence, but also its successful automation would have an incredible impact on the usability and effectiveness of computers themselves.
	www.aaai.org /AITopics/html/natlang.html (3572 words)

	Cover Pages: Human Markup Language Initiative (HumanML).
		The initiative is an XML-based non-proprietary endeavor, open to the contributions of all parties interested in helping define human XML standards.
		The project has a goal of "enriching human communications and reducing human misunderstanding" through explicit mechanisms to represent paralinguistic features of human communication.
		I suspect we will find the sweet spot in the markup and authoring of genre at the high organizational end, and gestures at the primitives with emotional states being the middle level.
	xml.coverpages.org /ni2001-02-28-a.html (749 words)

	HLT Home (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-06)
		For interesting tidbits on languages and technology visit
		For even more news, go to Language Technology World.
		You can read the news in any one of 11 original languages, or a translated version in the language of your choice.
	www.hltcentral.org (454 words)

	Linguistics 35Q: Computers and Human Language
		Increasingly, the role of computers is changing from number cruncher to language processor.
		Computers and Human Language is a sophomore seminar designed for students with an interest in computer applications that involve elements of human language.
		Our goal is to show you how an understanding of the various subfields of linguistics and the properties of human language they account for will facilitate the development of such applications.
	www.stanford.edu /class/linguist35q/syllabus.html (278 words)

	HLTRI - Human Language Technology Research Institute
		The goal of the Human Language Technology Research Institute is to incorporate activities in a broad spectrum of disciplines such as natural language processing, speech recognition and synthesis, knowledge acquired from texts and information extraction.
		These activities enable computers to interact with humans using natural language capabilities, and to serve as useful assistants to humans by providing services such as automatic text understanding and retrieval, information extraction and question answering, automatic translation and speech recognition.
		The Human Language Technology Research Institute was established at UT Dallas in February 2002 and serves both the government and private industry as consumers of human language technology.
	www.hlt.utdallas.edu (129 words)

	iLoveLanguages - Your Guide to Languages on the Web
		The more than 2400 links at iLoveLanguages have been hand-reviewed to bring you the best language links the Web has to offer.
		Whether you're looking for online language lessons, translating dictionaries, native literature, translation services, software, language schools, or just a little information on a language you've heard about, iLoveLanguages probably has something to suit your needs.
		As always, if you see iLoveLanguages mentioned in a book, magazine, newspaper, or other source, please let me know.
	www.ilovelanguages.com (414 words)

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