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Topic: Incident photon

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	Nikon MicroscopyU: Interactive Java Tutorials - CCD Signal-To-Noise Ratio
		The photon noise, or measurement variation, is therefore equivalent to the square-root of the signal.
		Because photon noise is an inherent property of CCD signal detection, which cannot be reduced by camera design factors, it essentially represents a "noise floor" that is the minimum achievable noise level, diminishing in relative effect as photon flux increases.
		A photon flux of 10e6 (1 million) photons per second from the focal volume, an extremely low light level, is equivalent to an average of 1 photon/pixel/second distributed over the surface of a sensor having 1 million active pixels.
	www.microscopyu.com /tutorials/java/digitalimaging/signaltonoise (2511 words)

	Life Cycle of the Photon Reading
		The term photon is used as a general term to describe the electromagnetic spectrum from radiowaves to infrared (IR) radiation to visible light (the Greek word "photos" means light) to x-rays and to gamma rays.
		The behavior of all these photons are basically the same: the photons travel at the same velocity in vacuum with energies that can vary over ten orders of magnitude from the very low energies of radio waves to the very high energies of gamma rays emitted from the nuclei of radioactive atoms.
		In the photoelectric effect a photon incident on a surface (here, a metal surface in vacuum) transfers its energy to an electron, which leaves the surface and is detected.
	acept.la.asu.edu /PiN/rdg/photon/photon.shtml (984 words)

	Solar cell - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		Photons in sunlight hit the solar panel and are absorbed by semiconducting materials, such as silicon.
		The energy given to it by the photon "excites" it into the conduction band, where it is free to move around within the semiconductor.
		These higher energy photons will be absorbed by the solar cell, but the difference in energy between these photons and the silicon band gap is converted into heat (via lattice vibrations - called phonons) rather than into usable electrical energy.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Solar_cell (5257 words)

	Encyclopedia :: encyclopedia : Absorption spectroscopy (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-29)
		It is based on the absorption of quanta of light by a chemical substance, due to the promotion of electrons from one atomic orbital or molecular orbital to another in that substance.
		The absorption spectrum is measured using a spectrophotometer, which disperses the transmitted light using a diffraction grating and subtracts from the known incident spectrum to determine opacity at each wavelength in the measured range.
		At wavelengths corresponding to the resonant energy levels of the sample, some of the incident photons are absorbed, resulting in a drop in the measured transmission intensity and a corresponding dip in the spectrum.
	www.hallencyclopedia.com /Absorption_spectroscopy (617 words)

	Olympus FluoView Resource Center: Electronic Light Detectors: Photomultipliers
		In operation, incident photons pass through the photomultiplier window and impact on the photocathode surface to subsequently generate photoelectrons that are ejected into the vacuum.
		Incident photoelectrons do not pass through the photocathode in a side-on photomultiplier, but instead are ejected from the front face and angled toward the first dynode element.
		Photons absorbed by or reflected from the surface of a photocathode emit photoelectrons at random intervals to produce a current variation that appears as noise.
	www.olympusfluoview.com /theory/pmtintro.html (5857 words)

	Coherence in Stimulated Emission
		This is because one way of rationalizing the duplication of the characteristics of the incident photon in the emitted photon is that the field is quantized and the number of photons is a proper quantum number for the quantized field.
		The proof of the very important result that a photon produced by stimulated emission is identical in at least most ways with the incident photon is still in 1999 the essentially that given by Albert Einstein in 1917.
		On the other hand, time reversal of stimulated emission when the momentum transfer is opposite to the case of absorption involves two coherent photon impinging upon an atom and resulting in the atom moving to an excited state and one of the photons continuing in the direction it was moving before the event.
	www2.sjsu.edu /faculty/watkins/stimem.htm (2731 words)

	Photon-Electron Scattering
		Since each photon is associated with a different momentum four-vector and each electron path can be labeled as refering to the first, second or third electrons, we have two distinct Feynman diagrams in figure 7.7.
		This interchange of momenta corresponds to the scattering of an incident photon with momentum
		The third and fourth pairs of diagrams have two photons in the final state (figures 7.8e and 7.8f) and two photons in the initial state (figures 7.8g and 7.8h), respectively.
	www.phys.ualberta.ca /~gingrich/phys512/latex2html/node102.html (1331 words)

	Photometrics - Encyclopedia (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-29)
		Photons incident on the CCD convert to photoelectrons within the silicon layer.
		Photon noise refers to the inherent natural variation of the incident photon flux.
		Under low-light-level conditions, read noise exceeds photon noise and the image data is said to be "read-noise limited." The integration time can be increased until photon noise exceeds both read noise and dark noise.
	www.photomet.com /library_enc_signal.shtml (470 words)

	Bell's Theorem
		constitute a polarization basis for photon j (j =1, 2), the former representing (in Dirac's notation) a state in which the photon 1 is linearly polarized in the x-direction and the latter a state in which it is linearly polarized in the y-direction.
		Pairs of photons were generated in Geneva and transmitted via cables with very small probability per unit length of losing the photons to two analyzing stations in suburbs of Geneva, located 10.9 kilometers apart on a great circle.
		The momenta, and therefore the directions, of the daughter photons are strictly correlated, which ensures that a non-negligible proportion of the pairs jointly enter the apertures (very small) of two optical fibers, as was also achieved in the experiment of Tittel et al.
	plato.stanford.edu /entries/bell-theorem (12704 words)

	SXUV Photodiodes Pulse Responsivity
		The bias voltage must be increased to the point that the area under the voltage-time curve ceases to increase with increased bias voltage.
		This indicates that the detector is being operated in the linear region, meaning all charge generated by the incident photons is collected in the external circuit.
		The pulse responsivity (charge generated per unit energy incident) was calculated by dividing the measured charge created in the detector by the measured pulse energy.
	www.ird-inc.com /pulse_res.htm (698 words)

	Omni - X-ray Fluorescence
		The emission of characteristic atomic x-ray photons occur when a vacancy in an inner electron state is formed, and an outer orbit electron makes a transition to that vacant state.
		The energy of the emitted photon is equal to the difference in electron energy levels of the transition.
		An incident photon beam experiences a photon absorption interaction with the specimen while electron and proton beams primarily experience a Coulomb interaction with the specimen.
	www.omniinstruments.com /fluorescence.html (657 words)

	Conjugated polymers: New materials for photovoltaics
		It is energetically feasible, therefore, that an incident visible-light photon has sufficient energy to excite an electron from the valence band into the conduction band of the material.
		Although the action of an incident photon on a conducting polymer excites an electron from the valence band into the conduction band, the resulting electron and hole are bound, and their motion through the material is coupled.
		In a conducting polymer, however, the electron and hole that are generated by the incident photon are bound into an exciton (Figure 4).
	acsinfo.acs.org /hotartcl/ci/00/apr/0650wallace.html (4032 words)

	The paper
		A small fraction of the visible light incident on the earth is absorbed by plants.
		The first step is the conversion of a photon to an excited electronic state of an antenna pigment molecule located in the antenna system.
		Photosynthesis is initiated by the absorption of a photon by an antenna molecule, which occurs in about a femtosecond (10-15 s) and causes a transition from the electronic ground state to an excited state.
	www.life.uiuc.edu /govindjee/paper/gov.html (12489 words)

	Nikon MicroscopyU: Digital Imaging in Optical Microscopy
		In recent years, the amount of information capable of being captured and stored by the best digital cameras is approaching (but still short of) the resolution available with traditional 35 millimeter film.
		Introduction to Charge-Coupled Devices (CCDs) - Digital cameras replace traditional sensitized film with a CCD photon detector, a thin silicon wafer divided into a geometrically regular array of thousands or millions of light-sensitive regions that capture and store image information in the form of localized electrical charge that varies with incident light intensity.
		Photon noise, dark current, fixed pattern noise, and photo response nonuniformity are generated on the CCD itself, while reset noise, I/f noise, and quantization noise occur during amplification and conversion of the analog signal to a digital output.
	www.microscopyu.com /articles/digitalimaging (2494 words)

	Experiment violates photon principle
		My past experiments were about splitting a gamma ray to create strong evidence against the photon model.
		These detectors deliver electrical pulses with their maximum voltage proportional to the kinetic energy of an incident charge pulse.
		The incident matter wave resonantly completes the loading to threshold after which the charge cannot hold itself together in this resonant organized set.
	www.unquantum.net (1253 words)

	Encyclopedia of Laser Physics and Technology - Brillouin scattering, nonlinearity, optical fibers, Brillouin laser (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-29)
		An incident photon can be converted into a scattered photon of slightly lower energy, usually propagating in the backward direction, and a phonon.
		The frequency of the reflected beam is slightly lower than that of the incident beam; the frequency difference corresponds to the frequency of emitted phonons.
		Ask RP Photonics for calculations of Brillouin scattering and for advice on how to suppress it.
	www.rp-photonics.com /brillouin_scattering.html (478 words)

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