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	Mathematics in Ancient India - Crystalinks
		Indian philosophy has glorified concepts like the material world being an illusion Maya), the act of renouncing the material world (Tyaga) and the goal of merging into the void of eternity (Nirvana).
		We are told that his name as a mathematician was well established when K Vyaghramukha of the Chapa dynasty m him the court astronomer.
		It was from this translation of an Indian text on Mathematics that the Arab mathematicians perfected the decimal system and gave the world its current system of enumeration which we call the Arab numerals, which are originally Indian numerals.
	www.crystalinks.com /indiamathematics.html (1955 words)

	Mathematics - MSN Encarta
		Mathematicians in India also were the first to recognize zero as both an integer and a placeholder.
		In the 5th century Hindu mathematician and astronomer Aryabhata studied many of the same problems as Diophantus but went beyond the Greek mathematician in his use of fractions as opposed to whole numbers to solve indeterminate equations (equations that have no unique solutions).
		The best-known Indian mathematician of the early period was Bhaskara, who lived in the 12th century.
	encarta.msn.com /encyclopedia_761578291_7/Mathematics.html (1288 words)

	Indian Science and Mathematics - History for Kids!
		In the 600's AD, Indian mathematicians may have been responsible for inventing the numeral zero, and the decimal (or place) system (or it is possible that they got this idea from Chinese mathematicians).
		Indian mathematical ideas soon spread to West Asia and from there to Africa and Europe.
		First, Indian architects were the first to use iron beams to replace wooden beams for building big temples.
	www.historyforkids.org /learn/india/science/index.htm (440 words)

	Indian mathematicians Encyclopedia (Site not responding. Last check: )
		The chronology of Indian mathematics spans from the Indus valley civilization and the Vedas to Modern times.
		Indian mathematicians have made outstanding discoveries in the subject of mathematics as we know it today.
		Society of Mathematicians, Physicists and Astronomers of Slovenia
	www.hallencyclopedia.com /topic/Indian_mathematicians.html (344 words)

	History of mathematics - WebArticles.com
		Mathematicians responded by introducing radicals and real numbers, which allowed many polynomial equations to be solved.
		Mathematicians today rarely view the development of the complex numbers in this way (the preferred teaching method does not emphasize this stepwise development) but it demonstrates the tension in mathematics between the rigorous and the creative which is the main power behind much of modern mathematics.
		It was from this translation of an Indian text on mathematics that the Arab mathematicians perfected the decimal system and gave the world its current system of enumeration which we call the Hindu-Arabic numerals.
	www.webarticles.com /print.php?id=417 (960 words)

	10: Conclusions
		I wish to conclude initially by simply saying that the work of Indian mathematicians has been severely neglected by western historians, although the situation is improving somewhat.
		Indian culture was of the highest standard, and this is reflected in the works that were produced.
		Finally, beyond simply alerting people to the remarkable developments of Indian mathematicians between around 3000 BC and 1600 AD, and challenging the Eurocentric ideology of the history of the subject, it is thought further analysis and research could also have important consequences for future developments of the subject.
	www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk /history/Projects/Pearce/Chapters/Ch10.html (1558 words)

	Indian mathematics
		Histories of Indian mathematics used to begin by describing the geometry contained in the Sulbasutras but research into the history of Indian mathematics has shown that the essentials of this geometry were older being contained in the altar constructions described in the Vedic mythology text the Shatapatha Brahmana and the Taittiriya Samhita.
		The earliest known urban Indian culture was first identified in 1921 at Harappa in the Punjab and then, one year later, at Mohenjo-daro, near the Indus River in the Sindh.
		The main mathematicians of the tenth century in India were Aryabhata II and Vijayanandi, both adding to the understanding of sine tables and trigonometry to support their astronomical calculations.
	www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk /~history/HistTopics/Indian_mathematics.html (3631 words)

	The Aryabhatiya: Foundations of Indian Mathematics \| Gongol.com
		In light of this, some scholars suggest that Aryabhata intended for his Aryabhatiya to be a commentary on previous mathematicians and astronomers or possibly a skeletal outline of his small contributions to the canon of knowledge (Srinivasiengar 42).
		Indian mathematical works often used word numerals before Aryabhata, but the Aryabhatiya is oldest extant Indian work with alphabet numerals.
		Aryabhata was not the first Indian mathematician to display that he could find square roots - Jain mathematicians had shown great proficiency at this before him - but the Aryabhatiya is the oldest extant work which provides a method for finding square roots.
	www.gongol.com /research/math/aryabhatiya (1879 words)

	Indian mathematics Summary
		Indian mathematicians have made major contributions to the development of mathematics as we know it today.
		Jaina mathematicians were particularly important in bridging the gap between earlier Indian mathematics and the 'Classical period', which was heralded by the work of Aryabhata I from the 5th century CE.
		Unfortunately, Indian contributions have not been given due acknowledgement in modern history, with many discoveries/inventions by Indian mathematicians now attributed to their western counterparts, due to Eurocentrism.
	www.bookrags.com /Indian_mathematics (7153 words)

	Indus Valley Webquest
		Indian theories about the atom are greatly abstract and enmeshed in philosophy as they were based on logic and not on personal experience or experimentation.
		Though Indians could have had borrowed the idea of smelting metals from an outside source, they seem to have had used metals in warfare from around 1500 BCE when the Aryans are said to have invaded the Indus Valley cities.
		Indian steel and iron were reportedly being used by the Romans for manufacturing armor as well as cutlery.
	stutzfamily.com /mrstutz/indus/IndusContributions.htm (7499 words)

	Carvaka Musings: Ancient Indian Mathematics
		Lalla was an Indian mathematician who wrote mainly on the application of mathematics to astronomy.
		Sankara Narayana was an Indian astronomer and mathematician.
		Sridhara was an Indian mathematician who wrote on practical applications of algebra and was one of the first to give a formula for solving quadratic equations.
	carvakamusings.blogspot.com /2006/08/ancient-indian-mathematics.html (2119 words)

	Journal of American Indian Education-Arizona State University
		The study was designed to investigate the perceptions of American Indian, African American, Hispanic, and White fifth and sixth graders in relation to mathematics, mathematics ability, mathematical and educational role models, treatment in the mathematics classroom, and teaching practices in the mathematics classroom.
		In terms of teacher treatment, responses indicated American Indian students believed their teachers generally thought they would go to college and were comparable to their classmates in their ability to learn mathematics, in how often the teacher called on them, and in how much time their teacher spent with them.
		The high dropout rate and under representation of American Indians in public school teaching and in mathematics or science related fields shows the need to nurture and encourage students to go to college, to enter fields of mathematics or science, and to become teachers.
	jaie.asu.edu /v36/V36S2how.htm (2966 words)

	A Short Note
		The history of Indian mathematics dates back to the vedic period (around 1500 B.C.) The 'Sulbasutras' of this vedic age are texts on rules for altar construction.
		Aryabhatta was a 5th century mathematician and astronomer who worked in the following areas- the methods of determining square and cube roots, geometrical problems, the progression, problems involving quadratic equations and indeterminate equations of the first degree.
		Brahmagupta was one of the very few early Indian mathematicians, who conceptualised the earth as round, and not as flat and hollow.
	cs.annauniv.edu /insight/insight/maths/history/index.htm (662 words)

	Astronomy and Mathematics in Ancient India
		Indians began using zero both as a number in the place-value system of numerals as well as to denote an empty place (place holder).
		The Indian numeral system and its place value, decimal system of enumeration came to the attention of the Arabs in the seventh or eighth century, and served as the basis for the well known advancement in Arab mathematics, represented by figures such as al-Khwarizmi.
		Later other Indian texts (from Buddhist and Jaina authors) extended this list as high as the 53rd power, far exceeding their Greek contmporaries, mainly because of the latter's handicap of not being able to accept the fundamental Mathematical notion of abstract numerals.
	www.hvk.org /articles/0802/214.html (3667 words)

	Sujit's world...
		As far as ancient Indian sciences are concerned, it was developed and transmitted to regions outside India by Chinese and Arabs.
		Sankara Narayana was an Indian astronomer and mathematician.
		Sridhara was an Indian mathematician who wrote on practical applications of algebra and was one of the first to give a formula for solving quadratic equations.
	www.cds.caltech.edu /~nair/indianmathematics.php (2164 words)

	Indian Scientists, scientist of India
		Indian scientific research and technological developments since independence in 1947 have received substantial political support and most of their funding from the government.
		Although colonization subverted much of Indian culture, turning the region into a source of raw materials for the factories of England and France and leaving only low-technology production to local entrepreneurs, a new organization was brought to science in the form of the British education system.
		One of the most famous Indian scientist of the pre- and postindependence era was Indian-trained Chandrasekhara Venkata (C.V.) Raman, an ardent nationalist, prolific researcher, and writer of scientific treatises on the molecular scattering of light and other subjects of quantum mechanics.
	www.indianchild.com /indian_scientists.htm (1635 words)

	DESI - ARTICLE (Astronomy in Ancient India)
		Indians began using zero both as a number in the place-value system of numerals as well as to denote an empty place (place holder).
		The Indian numeral system and its place value, decimal system of enumeration came to the attention of the Arabs in the seventh or eighth century, and served as the basis for the well known advancement in Arab mathematics, represented by figures such as al-Khwarizmi.
		Later other Indian texts (from Buddhist and Jaina authors) extended this list as high as the 53rd power, far exceeding their Greek contmporaries, mainly because of the latter's handicap of not being able to accept the fundamental Mathematical notion of abstract numerals.
	www.studentorg.umd.edu /desi/article35.htm (3634 words)

	Friends Of India: Mathematics in Ancient India
		By 1800 BC, Indian mathematicians were discussing the idea of infinity, pointing out that "if you remove a part from infinity or add a part to infinity, what remains is still infinity." By about 400 BC, Indian mathematicians were doing more work on the idea of infinity.
		Indian mathematician’s biggest invention was the use of zero as a placeholder, to make it easier to add and multiply numbers.
		Al-Khawarizmi, a Persian mathematician, developed a technique of calculation that became known as "algorism." This was the seed from which modern arithmetic algorithms have developed.
	blog.friendsofindia.net /2007/05/mathematics-in-ancient-india.html (833 words)

	Salem Press
		Indian astronomers used their numerals in the service of the Chinese emperor by 718.
		The concept of negative numbers was apparently transmitted to India in the second century, where mathematicians developed true fluency in handling negatives, including the ability to multiply and divide these numbers.
		The dissemination of Indian numeral symbols was necessarily slowed by the complex paths of transmission that roughly followed medieval trade routes.
	salempress.com /Store/samples/science_and_scientists/science_and_scientists_decimals.htm (1268 words)

	Brian's Education Blog • How India thinks and what India learns
		Indian software aptitude rests on both the emphasis on learning by rote in Indian schools, and a facility and reverence for abstract thought.
		The pure mathematician, it is said, does not need to work with numbers larger than 4, and does not and will never need computers to his work, because this essentially involves abstract thinking for which computers are useless.
		Most remarkable is the fact that there was a school of mathematicians in the southern Indian state of Kerala in the 14th century A.D., led by one Madhava, which anticipated developments in calculus, which would later be associated with Newton and the other European mathematicians of the 17th century.
	www.brianmicklethwait.com /education/archives/001132.htm (1807 words)

	Algebra - UnitedIndia.com
		The Arab scholar Mohammed Ibn Jubair al Battani studied Indian use of ratios from Retha Ganita and introduced them among the Arab scholars like Al Khwarazmi, Washiya and Abe Mashar who incorporated the newly acquired knowledge of algebra and other branches of Indian mathema into the Arab ideas about the subject.
		This method was deduced by Khwarazmi from the Indian techniques geometric computation which he had st ied.
		We are told that his name as a mathematician was well established when K Vyaghramukha of the Chapa dyansty m him the court astronomer.
	www.unitedindia.com /mathematics.htm (2091 words)

	Vedic Math
		The Indians were the first to use letters from the alphabet to indicate unknowns.
		Indians used “trikonmiti” to decide the positions, motions, and more of the spatial planets.
		The Arab mathematicians took the decimal system and developed it and then passed it on to the rest of the world.
	www.angelfire.com /il3/pathik/math.html (1174 words)

	India
		The famous Indian mathematician, Srinivasa Aiyangar Ramanujan, lived from 1887 to 1920.
		He came to the attention of famous mathematicians of his day after he wrote to G.H.Hardy, then a leading English mathematician, proposing new theorems (but without giving any proofs).
		Mathematicians have long been interested in Pi because the means of calculating it have historically given rise to new branches of mathematics.
	members.shaw.ca /rzamar/mathtrail/india.htm (474 words)

	Ancient Indian History: Philosophy, Development, Scientific Method, Ethics, Culture, Religion
		The premise that Indian philosophy is founded solely on mysticism and renunciation emanates from a colonial and orientalist world view that seeks to obfuscate a rich tradition of scientific thought and analysis in India.
		But even amongst those Indian philosophers who accepted the separation of mind and body and argued for the existence of the soul, there was considerable dedication to the scientific method and to developing the principles of deductive and inductive logic.
		Indian mathematicians were also the first to invent the concept of abstract infinite numbers - numbers that can only be represented through abstract mathematical formulations such as infinite series - geometric or arithmetic.
	india_resource.tripod.com /scienceh.htm (2799 words)

	Islamic science Summary
		Indian mathematicians developed some of the most important concepts in mathematics, including place-value numeration and zero.
		Indian mathematicians also developed the concept of zero, the base-10 decimal numeration system, and the number symbols, or numerals, we use today.
		Arab mathematicians took the geometric trigonometry (trigonometric identities derived from geometric drawings) of the Greeks, and added the mathematical sophistication and superior numbering system of Hindu mathematics, to create a trigonometry that very much resembles that of today.
	www.bookrags.com /Islamic_science (7254 words)

	About the origin of the zero...
		Although the identity of the actual inventors of the number zero is highly contested by scholars of today, most scholars agree that the number zero and the circular symbol which represents this number originated in India approximately during the ninth century.
		The reason as to why the Indian civilization was the first civilization to develop widespread application of the concept of zero in mathematics and the sciences can be found in the religious aspect of the Indian civilization.
		Nagarjuna, arguably one of the most famous Indian Mahayana Buddhist philosophers, took the idea of sunyata a step farther and taught in his philosophical writings, written during the second century, that all things are "empty" in that nothing has its own nature in itself (Smart 110).
	members.tripod.com /Cynan/zero.html (994 words)

	Mathematics Tips - Mathematics news and articles - Indian Professor Suggests Solutions to Fermat’s Last Theorem (Site not responding. Last check: )
		One of them is based on the 17th century techniques, in the times of Pierre de Fermat time while, another is beased on modem methods.
		This paper is presented at the prestigious International Congress of Mathematicians, Madrid in August.
		Pierre de Fermat is a French judge and mathematician.
	mathematics.science-tips.org /news/latest-news/indian-professor-suggests-solutions-to-fermats-last-theorem.html (660 words)

	Science in India: History of mathematics: Indian Mathematicians and Astronomers,
		A particularly important development in the history of Indian science that was to have a profound impact on all mathematical treatises that followed was the pioneering work by Panini (6th C BC) in the field of Sanskrit grammar and linguistics.
		Between the 7th C and the 11th C, Indian numerals developed into their modern form, and along with the symbols denoting various mathematical functions (such as plus, minus, square root etc) eventually became the foundation stones of modern mathematical notation.
		Records of the Indian origin of many proofs, concepts and formulations were obscured in the later centuries, but the enormous contributions of Indian mathematics was generously acknowledged by several important Arabic and Persian scholars, especially in Spain.
	members.tripod.com /~INDIA_RESOURCE/mathematics.htm (4603 words)

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