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Topic: Labor colonies

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	U.S. Department of Labor -- History -- The Emergence of American Labor
		Recruitment of a labor force, then, was essential to satisfy the needs of farmers and to a lesser degree of the maritime trades, the furnace and workshop industries, and the highly skilled crafts.
		Labor was in demand to build homes, cultivate the earth, exploit the natural resources of the North Atlantic coast and the interior of the continent, sail the ships, and fish the seas.
		Labor and capital would part company along political lines by the middle of the 1790s, and a series of notable strikes in the following decade would signalize the start of a trade union movement fashioned to meet the changing conditions of labor in an emerging industrial society.
	www.dol.gov /oasam/programs/history/chapter1.htm (7755 words)

	Seenarine - Women in Guyana (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-05)
		Laboring families were drawn from outcastes of Hindu society to perform field labor considered polluting to the upper and intermediate castes, like ploughing the fields.
		Colonial administrators were continuously pressured by abolition and nationalist groups to reform and abolish the indenture system, especially with regard to the status of women emigrant laborers.
		Colonial administrators and planters were compelled to address this issue, and their failure to do so became a crucial point in the abolition of indentureship in 1917.
	www.saxakali.com /indocarib/sojourner3.htm (10520 words)

	Colonial House . Interactive History . 1628 Across the Continent \| PBS
		Barbados would become the most profitable of all the English colonies by the end of the 17th century, after it switched from tobacco production to its salvation crop of sugar in the 1640s.
		The Africans were also a convenient labor pool to exploit -- not only had they been removed from their homeland, they were easily discerned by their skin color should they try to escape.
		By the end of the 17th century, the West Indian colonies featured a small, rich planter elite; a marginal population of poor whites; a great majority of fl slaves; and a very small number of maroons (escaped slaves).
	www.pbs.org /wnet/colonialhouse/history/1628_caribbean.html (592 words)

	Mary Ann Mason: From Father's Property to Children's Rights: A History of Child Custody
		Children were critical to the colonial labor force; after the age often children were often employed like adult workers, and many, if not most, did not remain in the custody of either parent until adulthood.4 While some came without parents, many others lost both parents through death or abandonment.
		This examination of child custody begins with a glance at the colonial household as a unit, followed by a deeper analysis of the roles of each of the members of that household and their relationship to the household's children.
		The labor of a child, even a non-slave, was a commodity that could be sold or hired out by fathers and assigned by masters.
	www.grad.berkeley.edu /deans/mason/booksfathersfirsten.shtml (2810 words)

	The Labor-Leisure Relationship in Stuart England and its American Colonies \| Nancy L. Struna \| OAH Magazine ...
		First, few of the new migrants acquired their servants and laborers from among the "poorer sorts." Instead, their workers were less affluent relatives, neighbors, skilled crafts people, and laborers, many of whom shared the interests and aspirations of the free men and women.
		The contracts had specific provisions for both labor and leisure behaviors; the system of bondage was enforced both by the weight of personal relationships and by institutions like the courts and churches.
		Virtually no evidence exists to suggest that either laborers or their masters regularly took time from work to play games, to visit with passersby, or to go to a tavern or alehouse for mid-day or evening meals and a game or two; and this pattern is probably not simply a function of incomplete records.
	www.oah.org /pubs/magazine/sport/struna.html (2803 words)

	Capitalism and Slavery
		Labor, that is, must be constant and must work, or be made to work, in co-operation.
		In such colonies the rugged individualism of the Massachusetts farmer, practicing his intensive agriculture and wringing by the sweat of his brow niggardly returns from a grudging soil, must yield to the disciplined gang of the big capitalist practicing extensive agriculture and production on a large scale.
		Indentured servants [the bulk of the Caribbean labor force in the first few years of British colonization] were not forthcoming [to the West Indies] in sufficient quantities to replace those who had served their term.
	social.chass.ncsu.edu /wyrick/debclass/erwill.htm (4607 words)

	The world's top australian labor party websites (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-05)
		Labor became a Federal Party when the former colonies of Australia federated in 1901.
		In both of those instances, the Labor Party was splintered by the warring factions, and kept out of power for decades by infighting, but the most devestating split was the 1954 split on communism.
		During the 1950s the issue of communism caused great internal conflict in the Labor party; many believed that it was being infiltrated by communists and Soviet agents.
	www.websbiggest.com /wiki-article-tab.cfm/australian_labor_party (698 words)

	Castes and Division of Labor in Termite Colonies (Isoptera)
		Division of labor among individuals in a colony is paramount to the study of social insect societies.
		Thus, understanding the division of labor in social insect societies is fundamental to a basic understanding of the evolution of sociality.
		Thus, the division of labor among soldiers and workers is regulated by differences in pheromone sensitivities and the response thresholds of these individuals.
	www.colostate.edu /Depts/Entomology/courses/en507/papers_2001/bono.htm (3656 words)

	2004 Country Report on Human Rights Practices in Turkmenistan
		In the correctional-labor colonies, relatives of prisoners reported excessive periods of isolation of prisoners in cells and "chambers." Authorities allegedly threatened, harassed, and abused minority religious prisoners in an attempt to force them to renounce their faiths (see Section 2.c.).
		The Constitution prohibits forced or compulsory labor; however, there were reports that prisoners were forced to work under hazardous and unhealthy conditions in a kaolin mine in Gyzylgaya prison, near Dashoguz.
		The Labor Code states overtime or holiday pay should be double the regular payment; maximum overtime in a year is 120 hours and can not exceed 4 hours in 2 consecutive days.
	www.state.gov /g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2004/41714.htm (9568 words)

	U.S. Committee for Human Rights in North Korea
		Their sentences entail slave labor in mining, logging, and farming enterprises in the valleys of mountainous areas in north and north-central North Korea.
		The kwan-li-so are described as colonies because they are sprawling encampments, twenty or more miles long and ten to twenty miles wide, containing multiple, enclosed, self-contained sections, or “villages,” for different categories of prisoners.
		A major phenomenon of repression associated with the kyo-hwa-so is the shockingly large number of deaths in detention from slave labor under dangerous circumstances and from starvation-level food rations.
	www.hrnk.org /hiddengulag/executiveSummary.html (1368 words)

	Chapter 2
		Colonial farmers considered their land in "fee simple" (subject only to rights reserved by society such as taxation, political, and eminent domain).
		Based on plentiful land, cheap labor, staple crops, and demand at home and abroad, the plantations drove the economy, shaped the social structure, and determined the political power in the colonial South.
		During the 18th century, farmers in middle colonies shifted from oxen to horses for power.
	teach1.cses.vt.edu /hist3124/ch2.html (2943 words)

	The Economy of the OGPU, NKVD and MVD of the USSR, 1930-1953
		In addition, millions were sentenced to correctional labor, and in most cases they served the sentences at their place of employment (see chapter by Sokolov).
		Because some camps and colonies had to be evacuated and conditions in the Gulag deteriorated in 1941, 420,000 inmates were given early releases.
		The untimely death of hundreds of thousands of people in the Gulag and the senseless waste at their labor and talents, such as the use of skilled workers for the wrong purpose, and in heavy physical work, a common complaint in NKVD and MVD documents substantially weakened the country’s human capital.
	www.uh.edu /~vlazarev/4389/Gulag-khlev.htm (6079 words)

	Gulag - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		The term "corrective labor camp" was suggested for official use by the politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union session of July 27, 1929, as a replacement of the term concentration camp, commonly used until that time.
		(To "corrective labor colonies" this applies to a much lesser extent, to special settlements almost not at all.) The growth of the camp system coincided with the peak of the Soviet industrialization campaign.
		After WWII the number of inmates in prison camps and colonies again rose sharply, reaching approximately 2.5 million people by the early 1950s (about 1.7 millions of whom were in camps).
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Gulag (3883 words)

	Gulag History, Structure and Size: A View From the Secret Archives
		Prison labor was also supposed to be more mobile than hired labor in that it could be shifted in large numbers from one project to another.
		The systematic utilization of forced labor began in 1926 and was initially limited to forestry and fisheries in the local environs.
		The ministries lobbied for prime prison labor, while the Gulag supplied a representative cross-section of prisoners with regard to sex, age, qualification, and health.
	www.uh.edu /~vlazarev/4389/Gulag-Gregory.htm (4304 words)

	PART IV: THE CRISIS OF THE UNION
		Bound labor was common in all the colonies because of the intense labor shortage.
		The southern colonies relied on certain cash crops such as tobacco, rice and indigo, all of which were labor intensive, and slavery provided the least expensive and most reliable source of labor.
		But the agenda before the Congress was independence of the colonies from Great Britain, not the emancipation of slaves, and the northern delegates agreed to mute their concerns about slavery in order to achieve a united front against the king.
	usinfo.state.gov /usa/infousa/facts/democrac/part4.htm (1144 words)

	A Short History of American Capitalism: COLONIAL ECONOMY (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-05)
		Of all members of that colony's governor's council during 1702-1776, "sixty percent were landed proprietors or their relatives, the individuals who had dominated the colony's history since the 1670s and who still controlled access to all unpatented land in the province."13 Large landholders, professionals, and large planters provided the bulk of members of the assembly.
		By the close of the colonial period, the land of the 13 colonies was spoken for by the politically dominant aristocracy.
		Much of the labor was performed by unfree persons who had little to say in the realm of work, politics, community life, and, in many cases, even the family.
	www.newhistory.org /CH03.htm (7585 words)

	[No title]
		While the Spanish began the importation of Africans into the Caribbean early in the sixteenth century, it was in the colonies of her rivals in the seventeenth- and eighteenth-century Caribbean where it flourished most.
		The British attack on coerced labor could thus be seen as the first stage of an assault on the trade barriers that reserved the British sugar market for British plantations and restricted trade with the rest of the world.
		This land and labor revolution, however, had displaced large numbers of small farmers, ranch workers, and wage laborers, who increasingly constituted a disgruntled mass, drifting into Havana and other cities and available to support a challenge to Spanish sovereignty in 1868.
	www.tulane.edu /~woodward/olemiss.htm (5945 words)

	NPS Ethnography: African American Heritage & Ethnography
		In the Chesapeake region, the economy was structured around larger farms and plantations, relying on indentured servants, and later slave labor, to raise tobacco (Mintz 2003a).
		Mid-Atlantic colonies developed grain commodities-based economies with centers in Philadelphia and New York that traded with other mainland and Caribbean colonies as well as England.
		These were the same material cultural expertise and skills that Africans brought to the New World along with their physical labor and ability to acclimate to environmental conditions that made them indispensable in the development of the Western Hemisphere.
	www.cr.nps.gov /ethnography/aah/AAheritage/histContextsC.htm (2600 words)

	H-Net Review: Thomas Reimer on The History of the GULAG: From Collectivization to the Great Terror
		While labor colonies remained an important but secondary part of the GULAG penal system, labor camps became the primary manner of convict labor.
		Most were sentenced to corrective labor at their regular workplace or received suspended sentences, but 5,580,000 people received prison terms.
		Concerning the number of inmates in labor camps, Khlevniuk stresses that the Pavlov report was reliable, especially after 1934, when statistics were kept by the Department of Accounting and Distribution (URO) in a kind of double ledger system.
	www.h-net.org /reviews/showrev.cgi?path=306101138032746 (2689 words)

	Soviet Repression
		So-called "labor colonies" were an important separate category.
		Even less is clear as yet regarding the labor colonies or prisons.
		Contingents of forced laborers also were attached to factories of a wide variety of types.
	www.uwm.edu /Course/448-343/index4.html (1655 words)

	U.S. group details N. Korea's 'hidden gulag' Asian Political News - Find Articles
		The political penal-labor camps are usually surrounded at their perimeters by barbed-wire fences punctuated with guard towers and patrolled by heavily armed guards, the report said.
		Many of them involve slave labor, which is ''often performed 12 or more hours per day, seven days per week,'' in mining for coal, logging and wood-cutting in the adjacent mountains under ''below-subsistence food rations,'' the report said.
		In addition to such political penal-labor colonies, North Korea also has a series of smaller penal-labor facilities for prisoners who are subject to a judicial process and given fixed-term sentences, the report said.
	www.findarticles.com /p/articles/mi_m0WDQ/is_2003_Oct_28/ai_109332033 (554 words)

	TIME.com: A Bit of Fear -- Feb. 25, 1966 -- Page 1
		A police wagon and a small truck drove up to the back door of a Moscow courthouse last week, avoiding the knot of students, the Western newsmen, and the two tearful wives who were waiting at the front.
		As expected, Sinyavsky and Daniel had been found guilty in a stacked trial of "maliciously slandering" Russia in their stories—some of which, oddly enough, concern writers serving terms in forced-labor camps.
		The authors were sentenced to serve their term in a "rigorous-regime collective-labor colony." That probably meant one of the two Mordvinian camps in the upper Volga Basin, where they may see relatives three times a year, receive letters once a month, and be "paroled" only to a less severe camp.
	www.time.com /time/magazine/article/0,9171,835135,00.html (673 words)

	The American Colonies
		An Outline of American History: The Colonial Period
		Women in Colonial America Anne Hutchinson: American Jezebel or Woman of Courage?
		The American Colonies in the 17th Century - Politics
	pw1.netcom.com /~wandaron/col.html (481 words)

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