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	Satellite laser ranging - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		Satellite laser ranging is a proven geodetic technique with significant potential for important contributions to scientific studies of the Earth/Atmosphere/Oceans system.
		Laser ranging to a near-Earth satellite was first carried out by NASA in 1964 with the launch of the Beacon-B satellite.
		The International Laser Ranging Service was formed in 1998 by the global SLR community to enhance geophysical and geodetic research activities, replacing the previous CSTG Satellite and Laser Ranging Subcommission.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Satellite_laser_ranging (655 words)

	Lunar laser ranging experiment - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		The ongoing Lunar Laser Ranging Experiment measures the distance between the Earth and the Moon using laser ranging.
		Lasers on Earth are aimed at retroreflectors previously planted on the Moon and the time delay for the reflected light to return is determined.
		Einstein's theory of gravity and the general theory of relativity predict the moon's orbit to within the accuracy of the laser ranging measurements.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Lunar_laser_ranging_experiment (454 words)

	NASA - Accuracy of Eclipse Predictions
		The first laser ranging retroreflector was positioned on the Moon in 1969 by the Apollo 11 astronauts.
		Once the laser beam hits a reflector, scientists at the ranging observatories use extremely sensitive filtering and amplification equipment to detect the return signal, which is far too weak to be seen with the human eye.
		From the ranging experiments, scientists know that the average distance between the centers of the Earth and the Moon is 385,000 kilometers with an accuracy of better than one part in 10 billion.
	sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov /eclipse/SEhelp/ApolloLaser.html (616 words)

	Laser ranging system having reduced sensitivity to surface defects - Patent 5631738
		Prior art laser ranging systems can provide the required topological map of the surface provided the surface is free of imperfections that have dimensions of the order of those of the diameter of the laser beam.
		The distance from the laser to the surface determines the degree to which the illuminated spot is displaced from the axis of the lens.
		In embodiments in which the laser range finding operates by reflecting the laser beam off of the surface and onto the detector array, the incident laser beam is not at normal incidence to the surface.
	www.freepatentsonline.com /5631738.html (2413 words)

	[No title]
		By beaming laser pulses at the reflector, scientists have been able to determine the round- trip travel time of a laser pulse and provide the distance between these two bodies at any given time down to an accuracy of about 3 centimeters (about 1 inch).
		While the earliest ranges had accuracies of several meters (or several yards), continuing improvements in the lasers and the detection electronics have led to recent measurements that are accurate to about 3 centimeters (about 1 inch).
		From the ranging experiments, scientists know that the average distance between the centers of the Earth and the moon is 385,000 kilometers (239,000 miles), showing that modern lunar ranges have relative accuracies of better than one part in 10 billion.
	www2.jpl.nasa.gov /files/releases/lunlaser.txt (1004 words)

	Apollo 11 experiment countinues to return data
		Scientists who analyze the data from the Lunar Laser Ranging Experiment have measured, among other things, that the Moon is moving away from the Earth and that the shape of the Earth is changing.
		The lunar laser ranging reflector is designed to reflect pulses of laser light fired from the Earth.
		Laser ranging has shown that the Moon is receding from the Earth at about 3.8 centimeters (1.5 inches) every year.
	www.jpl.nasa.gov /releases/99/lunarlaser.html (932 words)

	Fundamental Physics of Space - Technical Details
		The beam enters the telescope where the eyepiece would be, and the transmitted beam is expanded to become the diameter of the main mirror, then bounced off the surface toward the reflector on the Moon.
		There is strong evidence that the Moon has a liquid core, and laser ranging has allowed us to determine with great accuracy the rate at which the Moon is gradually receding from the Earth.
		By beaming laser pulses at the reflector from Earth, scientists have been able to determine the round-trip travel time that gives the distance between the observatory and retroreflector.
	funphysics.jpl.nasa.gov /technical/grp/lunar-laser.html (397 words)

	JPL.NASA.GOV: Feature Stories
		Scientists from various institutions who analyze the data from the lunar laser ranging experiment have observed, among other things, that the Moon is moving away from the Earth and has a fluid core, and that Einstein's Theory of Relativity is accurate.
		The lunar laser ranging experiment is the only lunar investigation continuously operating since the Apollo project.
		To this end, a new lunar ranging instrument with significantly improved accuracy is being constructed at Apache Point Observatory in New Mexico by the University of California at San Diego and the University of Washington.
	www.jpl.nasa.gov /news/features.cfm?feature=605 (951 words)

	Apollo 14 Laser Ranging Retroreflector Experiment (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-01)
		It consisted of a series of corner-cube reflectors, which are a special type of mirror with the property of always reflecting an incoming light beam back in the direction it came from.
		The reflected laser beam is also observed with the telescope, providing a measurement of the round-trip distance between Earth and the Moon.
		Laser beams are used because they remain tightly focused for large distances.
	www.lpi.usra.edu /expmoon/Apollo14/A14_Experiments_LRRR.html (388 words)

	GTMO Portfolio - Feature -Sensor Skin
		An experiment in which an Earth-based observatory successfully exchanged laser pulses with the MESSENGER spacecraft while the two were millions of miles apart has helped to convince mission planners to include the same technology on the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO), which will launch in 2008 to map the lunar surface.
		It also calibrated the laser pointing and receiver bore sight, which was the principal reason for the test, Sun said.
		In 1992, laser pulses were successfully transmitted and detected by the camera onboard the Galileo probe while it was 4 million miles away.
	gsfctechnology.gsfc.nasa.gov /Ranging.html (567 words)

	Swarovski Laser Ranging Scope
		A semiconductor laser, which is incorporated into the main tube, is eye safe, and guarantees reliable range measurements even under unfavourable light conditions.
		Range of 600 meters/660 yards in bright sunlight, measurement accuracy +/- 1 yard, measuring time approximately 1 second.
		Range adjustment for windage and elevation made manually by means of ballistic target turrets.
	www.gunaccessories.com /Swarovski/LaserRangefindingScope/index.asp (181 words)

	Anthonares » Blog Archive » Bouncing Laser Beams Off of the Moon
		Two of the science experiments, the Lunar Laser Ranging Experiment and the lunar seismometers (Passive Seismic Experiments), returned data long after the astronauts left.
		A laser beam that starts out from a telescope on earch at about 1 meter width slowly diverges and is blurred by the atmosphere until it is about 10 km wide on the surface of the moon.
		In fact, Radar and Laser ranging are two separate approaches both used to obtain the distance to the Moon to great precision.
	www.anthonares.net /2006/03/bouncing-laser-beams-off-of-the-moon.html (1816 words)

	Lunar Laser Ranging at McDonald
		Laser ranging data accuracy, to first order and with everything else held constant, scales inversely with laser pulse length.
		The unique contributions already accomplished include a three orders-of-magnitude improvement in the accuracy of the lunar ephemeris, a several orders-of-magnitude improvement in the measurement of the variations in the Moon’s rotation, and the verification of the principal of equivalence for massive bodies with unprecedented accuracy.
		A new laser ranging station with LLR capability is currently being constructed to replace the present Matera artificial satellite only station in Italy.
	www.csr.utexas.edu /mlrs/dda.html (2881 words)

	Abstract
		Fortunately, Lunar Laser Ranging experiments, which have been done since 1969, and continue to be done today, provide key information about light and the moon.
		With lasers that are shot at the moon, it is very important that the minimum beam divergence possible be achieved.
		When ground zero is first attempted, either by the observer or the computer, the observer may not have "found" the retro-reflector on the first shot and he or she may need to start "clicking" the telescope controls to "find" the retro-reflector.
	pages.sbcglobal.net /webster.kehr/Chapters/Chapter100-LLR.htm (5636 words)

	Satellite Laser Ranging: NASA Space Sensors and Instrument Technology (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-01)
		In 1964, NASA was the first organization to successfully demonstrate laser ranging to satellites and has continued to support their development to the present.
		In satellite laser ranging, ground based stations transmit short intense laser pulses to a retroreflector equipped satellite, such as LAGEOS.
		Ranging to these retroreflectors with a global network of laser stations allows NASA to determine both the precise orbit of a satellite and the station positions.
	ranier.hq.nasa.gov /Sensors_page/Laser/SLR.html (392 words)

	Laser Ranging & Distance Measuring For Liquid Level & Non-Contact Measurement (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-01)
		Phase Laser Systems provides engineering and developmental services to industry and government in order that our fundamental laser ranging technology may be customized for very specific applications.
		Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory is using the laser, paired with a multipoint extensometer, to measure deformities that occur in boreholes when the surrounding rock is exposed to high heat.
		Because these deformities must be monitored at several points within the boreholes, the laser system design had to satisfy tight space restrictions as well as heat and pressure within the hole.
	www.phaselaser.com /partner.html (523 words)

	distomat/laser ranging software routines (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-01)
		It is called by lrpcinp after reading in the raw data from the laser ranging PC.
		It points from the laser ranger to the target when the 3 platform corners are at [Crm].
		It returns the data from the laser ranging PC as well as the heigts converted to feet above sea level (the conversion factors were measured in 1990 and have probably changed!).
	www.naic.edu /~phil/lrdoc.html (1493 words)

	The Most Important Thing Armstrong Left on the Moon
		Ringed by footprints, sitting in the moondust, lies a 2-foot wide panel studded with 100 mirrors pointing at Earth: the "lunar laser ranging retroreflector array." Apollo 11 astronauts Buzz Aldrin and Neil Armstrong put it there on July 21, 1969, about an hour before the end of their final moonwalk.
		Physicists have also used the laser results to check Einstein's theory of gravity, the general theory of relativity.
		A complete list may be found in Alley's account of the project, "Laser ranging to retro-reflectors on the Moon as a test of theories of gravity," published in Quantum Optics, Experimental Gravitation, and Measurement Theory, Eds.
	science.nasa.gov /headlines/y2004/21jul_llr.htm (938 words)

	Citebase - Laser Ranging to the Moon, Mars and Beyond (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-01)
		Laser Ranging to the Moon, Mars and Beyond
		Technologies and possible improvements in the laser-enabled tests of various physical phenomena are considered along with a space architecture that could be the cornerstone for robotic and human exploration of the solar system.
		We also consider precision gravitational tests with the future laser ranging to Mars and discuss optical design of the proposed Laser Astrometric Test of Relativity (LATOR) mission.
	citebase.eprints.org /cgi-bin/citations?id=oai:arXiv.org:gr-qc/0411082 (306 words)

	The International Laser Ranging Service
		The basic observable is the precise time-of-flight of an ultrashort laser pulse to and from a satellite, corrected for atmospheric delays.
		The new state-of-the-art Matera Laser Ranging Observatory (MLRO) with both SLR and lunar ranging capability has now been installed at Matera and is presently undergoing final acceptance testing.
		The new French Transportable Laser Ranging System (FTLRS) is undergoing checkout in preparation for tracking support of JASON and other active satellite missions from a site in the Mediterranean region.
	geodesy.eng.ohio-state.edu /iag_sectionII/ilrs.htm (2751 words)

	☞ laser - Laser Technology
		These lasers are compact, extremely reliable, inexpensive to run and can provide over 20,000 hours of cutting before...
		Laser Technology, Inc designs and manufactures laser-based speed and distance measurement instruments, or laser rangefinders, used in a wide variety of applications.
		Laser Therapeutic Technology Inc is a regional distributor of the ML830 Laser.
	www.about-laser.info /lasertechnology (553 words)

	Was Galileo Wrong?
		Using lasers to ping the Moon, NASA-supported researchers are testing a fundamental assumption of modern physics.
		"Lunar laser ranging is one of the most important tools we have for searching for flaws in Einstein's general theory of relativity," says Slava Turyshev, a research scientist at JPL who works with Jim Williams and others on the project.
		The speed of light is known--it's about 300,000 km per second--so measuring the time of flight for the laser pulse tells scientists the distance between the APOLLO telescope and the mirror sitting on the surface of the Moon.
	science.nasa.gov /headlines/y2004/06may_lunarranging.htm?friend (1409 words)

	Paroscientific, Inc. Satellite Laser Ranging
		In Satellite Laser Ranging (SLR) a global network of stations measures the instantaneous round-trip time of flight of ultra-short pulses of light to satellites equipped with special reflectors.
		This provides instantaneous range measurements of millimeter level precision, which can be accumulated to provide accurate orbits and a host of important science products.
		The International Laser Ranging Service has been formed by the global SLR community to enhance geophysical and geodetic research activities.
	www.paroscientific.com /slr.htm (500 words)

	Satellite Laser Ranging Data (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-01)
		A looking-angle independent range correction to account for the distance between the reflection point of the laser pulse and the centre of the retroreflector cavity lines (6.1 cm) [Louet, 1991].
		Evidently, the RMS of the laser residuals will only be a good representation of the global orbit error when the tracking data are regularly distributed in time and provide a good global coverage.
		During the period of POD arcs 160-169 ERS-1 was tracked only 1.6% of the time: 12h16m by one laser, 1h12m by two lasers, 26 minutes by three, 8 minutes by four, and only 1 minute by five lasers simultaneously.
	www.deos.tudelft.nl /ers1/operorbs/node8.html (933 words)

	MLRO Info (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-01)
		At the end of 1999 a new, state of the art Satellite/Lunar Laser Ranging station, the Matera Laser Ranging Observatory, will be operational at the Centro di Geodesia Spaziale of Matera of the Italian Space Agency (ASI).
		The laser subsystem features an hybrid, active-active ND::YAG configuration generating high energy, short (40 ps) pulses to provide the necessary link and data accuracy; the wavelenght of the laser is 532 nm in one-color mode, and 532/355 nm in two-color mode.
		The laser room has a built-in Faraday cage and is slightly overpressurized to ensure a clean room environment.
	www.asi.it /html/eng/asicgs/geodynamics/mlro.html (526 words)

	Countermeasure - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		Countermeasures are most popularly associated with aircraft defense, with examples including metallic foil chaff to disrupt radar detection, decoy flares to disrupt infrared, and electronic countermeasures to disrupt other targeting and communications systems.
		However, land and sea-based forces can also use such countermeasures as well as smoke-screens that can disrupt laser ranging, infrared detection, laser weapons, and visual observation.
		Countermeasures are a complicating factor in the development anti-ballistic missile defense systems targeting ICBM's.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Countermeasure (349 words)

	[13.01] Laser Ranging to Vulnerable Targets (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-01)
		Entering a new century, we also enter a new phase of laser ranging.
		There are now a number of satellites that fire laser pulses toward the surface of the object about which they orbit.
		Communications must exist between ICESat operations and cooperating SLR stations to assure that ranging is not performed when ICESat may be pointed at that station.
	www.aas.org /publications/baas/v37n2/dda05/43.htm (320 words)

	Satellite Laser Station Programs (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-01)
		The Simeiz Satellite Laser Station (N 1873) is equipped with the laser ranger, based on the 1-m telescope.
		NASA) and other research organizations around the world to provide accurate position of satellites specially designed to improve our understanding of the earth's crustal motion, earth rotation and polar motion, gravity field, the composition of the earth's interior, ocean circulation, tides, ice volume changes and to test the validity of current atmospheric and climatic models.
		The Simeiz station participates in a global network of 35 Satellite Laser Ranging Stations which routinely tract a complex of 15 - 18 of these special satellites, accordinating activities and sharing data for research by their respective scientific organizations.
	quake.stanford.edu /~crao/Projects/satellit.html (230 words)

	APOLLO
		APOLLO measures the round-trip travel time of laser pulses bounced off the lunar retroreflectors to a precision of a few picoseconds, corresponding to about one millimeter of precision in range to the moon.
		A significant part of the challenge of lunar range modeling is converting this point-to-point measurement into a distance between the center-of-mass of the earth and the center-of-mass of the moon.
		First Ranging Results include 2,400 return photons in 30 minutes, and confirmed accuracy at the inch-level (sort-of).
	physics.ucsd.edu /~tmurphy/apollo/apollo.html (951 words)

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