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Topic: Lead acid

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	Lead - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		Lead is used in building construction, lead-acid batteries, bullets and shot, and is part of solder, pewter, and fusible alloys.
		Lead is used as a coloring element in ceramic glazes, notably in the colors red and yellow.
		Lead pipes that bear the insignia of Roman emperors are still in service and many Roman "pigs" (ingots) of lead figure in Derbyshire lead mining history and in the history of the industry in other English centres.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Lead (1383 words)

	Lead Acid Battery Hazards
		Drum storage of sulfuric acid in comparison to sulfuric acid in batteries, is substantially safer since there are additional serious failure mechanisms and consequences to be found in batteries and their applications.
		A rule of thumb for both batteries is the sulfuric acid is one third of the weight and the lead and lead compounds comprise the rest or two thirds of the reactive elements.
		Sulfuric acid and lead sulfate accumulations are also typical and considered a normal condition by those in the battery industry and is not generally covered under warranty or workmanship standards.
	www.calicorp.com /articles/batteries-hazards.html (1643 words)

	Lead-acid battery - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		Lead acid batteries for automotive use are not designed for deep discharge and should always be kept at maximum charge, using constant voltage at 13.8 V (for six element car batteries).
		Currently attempts are being made to develop alternatives to the lead-acid battery (particularly for automotive use) because of concerns about the enviornmental consequences of improper disposal of old batteries.
		Case Studies in Environmental Medicine - Lead Toxicity
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Lead-acid_battery (672 words)

	Lead Acid Storage Battery (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-10)
		The Lead Acid Storage Battery was developed in the late 1800's and has remained the most common and durable of the battery technologies.
		Although the battery and its associated lead mining, refining and recovery businesses are an environmental liability, and the battery's mass is a drawback in its use in vehicles, the continued use of this class of batteries reflects the serious problems in developing alternatives.
		The lead is frequently alloyed with antimony to increase the hardness of the lead and to prevent the plates from drooping in service.
	neon.chem.uidaho.edu /~honors/pbacid.html (648 words)

	Lead Acid Batteries
		Lead acid batteries were invented in 1859 by Gaston Planté and first demonstrated to the French Academy of Sciences in 1860.
		During charging, the cycle is reversed: the lead sulfate and water are electro-chemically converted to lead, lead oxide and sulfuric acid by an external electrical charging source.
		Sulphation is the increase in internal resistance of the battery due to the formation of large lead sulphate crystals which are not readily reconverted back to lead, lead dioxide and sulphuric acid during re-charging.
	www.mpoweruk.com /leadacid.htm (1371 words)

	Lead Acid Batteries
		Lead Acid battery cells consist of a lead (Pb) electrode and a lead oxide (PbO
		When the battery is charged, the process reverses, with the lead sulfate combining with water to build up lead and lead oxide on the electrodes.
		Lead acid batteries should never be fully discharged; this will effectively kill the battery, making it impossible to charge.
	support.radioshack.com /support_tutorials/batteries/bt-ldac-main.htm (343 words)

	Lead
		Lead was, indeed, used in machines of all kinds, not as a structural material, but where its fusibility and workability were an advantage, and for many small items of daily use.
		Lead is still used for sheathing cables, in bearing alloys, in artistic pigments and glazes, for decorative glass, in the chemical industry, and, of course, for bullets, which have always been in special demand in the United States.
		Now, lead is a systemic poison, but its use in paint and motor fuel was thought safe because nobody ate paint or scraped it into their coffee, and there was lots of air to dilute the lead coming out of exhaust pipes.
	www.du.edu /~jcalvert/phys/lead.htm (8222 words)

	Genomics\|HuGENet\|Reviews\|ALAD genotype and lead\|PubMed ID: 11427399
		Occupational exposure to lead is most often encountered at lead smelters and battery manufacturing facilities, as well as in housing renovation projects in which workers inhale and ingest lead-contaminated fumes and dust from lead-based paint.
		Lead levels in plasma, urine, bone, and teeth (dentin lead) are less commonly used measures of exposure and body burden.
		However, using the difference of lead levels in patellar versus tibial bone as an indicator of effect of the genotype on the distribution of lead in bone, a difference of borderline significance was found between 1-1 and 1-2/2-2 genotypes (p = 0.06).
	www.cdc.gov /genomics/hugenet/reviews/ALADPb.htm (4655 words)

	USGS Minerals Information: Lead
		Lead is a very corrosion-resistant, dense, ductile, and malleable blue-gray metal that has been used for at least 5,000 years.
		Prior to the early 1900's, uses of lead in the United States were primarily for ammunition, brass, burial vault liners, ceramic glazes, leaded glass and crystal, paints or other protective coatings, pewter, and water lines and pipes.
		Contributing to the increase in demand for lead was the use of lead as radiation shielding in medical analysis and video display equipment and as an additive in gasoline.
	minerals.usgs.gov /minerals/pubs/commodity/lead (495 words)

	Lead-Acid Batteries (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-10)
		Because these batteries contain lead, a highly toxic heavy metal, and sulfuric acid, a corrosive, they are classified as hazardous and are required to be disposed of properly.
		After the lead is separated from the non-metallic components of the battery, it is then smelted to produce soft lead and lead alloys.
		The non-metallic materials include sulfuric acid, which is neutralized and released into the sewer; the plastic shell (or polypropylene), which is reclaimed; and other non-recyclable, non-hazardous material, which is disposed of.
	www.rivcoeh.org /97-12.htm?- (423 words)

	It's Elemental - The Element Lead
		Most lead is obtained by roasting galena in hot air, although nearly one third of the lead used in the United States is obtained through recycling efforts.
		Lead is also used as a covering on some wires and cables to protect them from corrosion, as a material to absorb vibrations and sounds and in the manufacture of ammunition.
		Lead monoxide (PbO), also known as litharge, is a yellow solid that is used to make some types of glass, such as lead crystal and flint glass, in the vulcanizing of rubber and as a paint pigment.
	education.jlab.org /itselemental/ele082.html (480 words)

	World Motive Lead Acid Battery Markets
		Lead is the primary raw material in motive lead acid (MLA) batteries and its cost, which comprises close to 85 percent of the battery cost, has a significant impact on the profitability of MLA battery vendors.
		Lead acid batteries are a reliable and recyclable energy solution since new batteries typically contain 60 to 80 percent of recycled lead and plastics.
		The spongy lead at the negative electrode and the lead alloy at the positive electrode react with sulphuric acid, resulting in the discharge of ions at the electrodes.
	www.frost.com /prod/servlet/report-brochure.pag?id=A713-01-00-00-00 (1641 words)

	World Stationary Lead Acid Battery Markets
		Unfortunately, lead prices are expected to continue to increase owing to factors such as an unequal demand-supply equation and the closure of some lead smelting units in developing regions.
		Lead acid batteries consist of two electrodes of opposite polarities and an electrolyte.
		The spongy lead at the negative electrode and the lead alloy at the positive electrode react with the electrolyte - sulphuric acid - forming lead sulphate.
	www.frost.com /prod/servlet/report-brochure.pag?id=A714-01-00-00-00 (1580 words)

	Management of Lead-Acid Batteries
		Acid spillage from such batteries has caused many disposal sites to be contaminated with lead.
		Used lead-acid batteries that are disposed and NOT recycled must be managed as hazardous waste because of the lead and acid content (D008, D002).
		The acid and casings from these batteries have been found to contain high quantities of lead and should also be managed as hazardous waste when disposed.
	www.p2pays.org /ref/01/00107.htm (645 words)

	The Myth of Automobile Battery Recycling (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-10)
		The main factors causing the lead battery waste trade are typical to all waste trade schemes: in industrial countries, the environmental and occupational health regulatory cost of operating lead battery recycling facilities is ever-increasing, and the prices offered for secondary lead are low.
		Lead batteries and lead battery smelters have been transferring out of industrial countries in recent years, as environmental regulations have tightened and domestic lead prices have dropped.
		Lead waste and sulfuric acid drains into open sewers in the surrounding slums, and slags from the lead smelter lie on the open ground next to the plant.
	www.things.org /~jym/greenpeace/myth-of-battery-recycling.html (3788 words)

	Yuasa Battery, Inc.
		The oxygen in the active material (lead dioxide) reacts with the hydrogen ions to form water, and the lead reacts with the sulfuric acid to form lead sulfate.
		The acid isn’t depleted as quickly when the current flow is small (like to power a tail light bulb), and the diffusion rate is sufficient to maintain the voltage and current.
		The hydrogen reacts with the lead sulfate to form sulfuric acid and lead, and when most of the sulfate is gone, hydrogen rises from the negative plates.
	www.yuasabatteries.com /motor_battery.asp (2577 words)

	Lead-Acid Batteries
		A lead-acid battery consists of a polypropylene casing; lead terminals and positive and negative internal plates; lead oxide; electrolyte, a dilute solution of sulfuric acid and water; and plastic separators, which are made of a porous synthetic material.
		This is because of the ease of returning a used battery when purchasing a new battery and the value of the lead and plastic components of the used battery.
		Battery acid is either neutralized, treated and discharged into sewers, or processed into sodium sulfate, a powder used in laundry detergent, glass and textile manufacturing.
	wasteage.com /mag/waste_leadacid_batteries_2/index.html (419 words)

	Batteries (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-10)
		When charged, this flow of electrons is forced backwards, against the electropotential of these reactions and the reactions are driven backwards, changing the lead sulphate back into lead and lead dioxide on the plates and restoring the sulphuric acid to the solution, the liquid electrolyte.
		Since sulphuric acid is a very dense liquid, as the amount of sulphuric acid goes up and down in the battery, the density of the liquid changes.
		Since this liquid is sulphuric acid solution that changes strength as the battery charges and discharges, and sulphuric acid is very heavy, the density of the battery fluid changes as it charges.
	www.chem.hawaii.edu /uham/bat.html (3975 words)

	EV Battery Glossary
		The electrolyte (the acid) is held in place against the plates instead of being a free-flowing liquid.
		Electrodes of lead oxide and metallic lead are separated by an electrolyte of sulfuric acid.
		Saft is a leading manufacturer of nickel-cadmium batteries for EV applications.
	www.rtpnet.org /~teaa/battery.html (1843 words)

	Lead Acid BatteriesFacts
		Used vehicle batteries are hazardous because they contain highly corrosive sulfuric acid, lead and other toxic metals.
		Up to 80 or 90 percent of spent lead- acid batteries currently are recycled.
		Lead absorbed into the blood can cause high blood pressure in adults and neurological damage in children.
	www.epa.state.oh.us /pic/facts/hhwlab.html (570 words)

	LEAD ACID BATTERIES, BATTERY HISTORY TYPES AND DEVELOPMENT - SOLAR NAVIGATOR WORLD ELECTRIC NAVIGATION CHALLENGE, ...
		Even the so-called "dry charged" (where you add acid when you need them) have a shelf life of at most 18 months, as they are not totally dry (actually, a few are, but hard to find, the vast majority are shipped with damp plates).
		In the hybrid, the plates may be composed of Lead sponge, but it is coarser and heavier than that used in starting batteries.
		Gelled batteries, or "Gel Cells" contain acid that has been "gelled" by the addition of Silica Gel, turning the acid into a solid mass that looks like gooey Jell-O. The advantage of these batteries is that it is impossible to spill acid even if they are broken.
	www.solarnavigator.net /lead_acid_batteries.htm (4575 words)

	lead acid charger
		Having built many of these that moniter the voltage and cut in at various times I have come to the conclusion that the best method is to use a very heavy rectifier and a well chosen transformer the secondry giving a voltage of 14 voltes to maintain the stait of the battery.
		I have found that lead acid batteries should banged charge to overcome any residual coating on the plates and then left to charge for the duration of the battery capacity.
		With these feature’s capable of quickly and safely charging of lead acid batteries providing with temperature compensation in addition two step charging level with automatic switch over and floating voltage charging.
	www.edaboard.com /viewtopic.php?p=157923 (1164 words)

	How Lead Acid Batteries Work
		It uses a combination of lead plates or grids and an electrolyte consisting of a diluted sulphuric acid to convert electrical energy into potential chemical energy and back again.
		Battery weight is a simple indicator for the thickness of the lead plates used in a battery.
		The lead found in Gel and AGM batteries does not require a lot of mechanical strength since it is immobilized by the gel or fiberglass.
	www.vonwentzel.net /Battery/00.Glossary (3136 words)

	The Basic Chemistry of Gas Recombination in Lead-Acid Batteries
		Acid has been generated in the pores of the positive plate and electrogenerated oxygen has diffused to the negative plate through a partially saturated separator and thin electrolyte films on both plates.
		The consequences of this are obvious and can be minimized somewhat through modification of the cell chemistry, but the predominance of single-cell manufacture in sealed nickel-cadmium (with attendant sorting by discharge capacities and other performance attributes) attests to the seriousness of this limitation.
		Carbon dioxide is liberated from slow neutralization of lead carbonates and from chemical or electrochemical oxidation of organics present in expanders, other paste additives and/or separators.
	www.tms.org /pubs/journals/JOM/0101/Nelson-0101.html (5296 words)

	Lead-Acid Batteries (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-10)
		Batteries use a chemical reaction to do work on charge and produce a voltage between their output terminals.
		The reaction of lead and lead oxide with the sulfuric acid electrolyte produces a voltage.
		The supplying of energy to and external resistance discharges the battery.
	hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu /hbase/electric/leadacid.html (58 words)

	Battery Tutorial \| Batterystuff.com
		The commercial use of the lead acid battery is over 100 years old.
		The Lead Acid battery is made up of plates, lead, and lead oxide (various other elements are used to change density, hardness, porosity, etc.) with a 35% sulfuric acid and 65% water solution.
		Sulfuric Acid eats up clothing and you may want to select Polyester clothing to wear, as it is naturally acid resistant.
	www.batterystuff.com /tutorial_battery.html (3161 words)

	Lead-Acid Batteries Recycling Programs
		The batteries are broken by hammer mills; the electrolyte is neutralized; and the lead is recovered through controlled temperature processes.
		Click here for more information on non-automotive, non-lift-truck lead acid battery recycling.
		Click here for more information on automotive, commercial, truck, industrial lead acid battery recycling.
	www.batteryrecycling.com /lead.html (105 words)

	Charging the lead-acid battery
		The exceptions are small sealed lead acid batteries (SLA), which can be charged to 2.50V/cell without adverse side effect.
		Cells constructed of a non-antimonial lead grid material allow higher charge currents but have a lower capacity.
		Furthermore, AGM has a higher voltage plateau than the flooded lead acid and the readings on Figure 3 may not apply.
	www.batteryuniversity.com /partone-13.htm (1340 words)

	Some Technical Details on Lead Acid Batteries
		During the recharge phase of the reaction, the cycle is reversed: the lead sulfate and water are electro-chemically converted to lead, lead oxide and sulfuric acid by an external electrical charging source.
		The longer the lead sulfate bond stays at a level the more likely it is to form a closer acquaintance and enter the next deeper level.
		When you charge a lead acid battery, one of the things you attempt to accomplish is the repair or reformation of the corrosion layer of the positive plate.
	www.flex.com /~kalepa/technotes.htm (1210 words)

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