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Topic: Letter frequencies

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Frequency analysis

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	Fun With Words: Letter Frequencies
		When analyzing the frequency with which letters appear in English, it's important to understand whether you are factoring in the frequency with which individual words are used.
		For example, the letter 'h' is not found in a comparatively large number of English words, but as it appears in several of the most commonly used words, such as "the," "then," "there," and "that," it appears more often in every day speech and writing than it does in a list of dictionary words.
		The first table shows the frequency of letters as they appear in 18584 base words -- no plural words or words with common suffixes are included in the list.
	rinkworks.com /words/letterfreq.shtml (318 words)

	Letter frequencies - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		The frequency of letters in text messages has often been studied for use in cryptography, and frequency analysis in particular.
		Letter frequencies, like word frequencies, tend to vary, both by writer and by subject.
		Letter, bigram, trigraph and word frequencies can be used to prove or disprove authorship of long texts.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Letter_frequencies (260 words)

	NationMaster - Encyclopedia: Frequency analysis
		Frequency analysis is based on the fact that, in any given stretch of written language, certain letters and combinations of letters occur with varying frequencies.
		In a simple substitution cipher, each letter of the plaintext is replaced with another, and any particular letter in the plaintext will always be transformed into the same letter in the ciphertext.
		In cryptanalysis, frequency analysis is the study of the frequency of letters or groups of letters in a ciphertext.
	www.nationmaster.com /encyclopedia/Frequency-analysis (2987 words)

	Cryptograms and English Language Letter Frequencies
		The frequency of letters in text messages has often been studied for use in cryptography, and frequency analysis in particular.
		Letter frequencies, like word frequencies, tend to vary, both by writer and by subject.
		Letter, bigram, trigraph and word frequencies can be used to prove or disprove authorship of long texts.
	www.cryptograms.org /letter-frequencies.php (238 words)

	Letter Frequencies (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-09-15)
		In other words, if the sender has tried to disguise a letter by replacing with a different letter, you can still recognise the original letter because the frequency characteristics of the original letter will be passed on to the new letters.
		To apply frequency analysis, you will need to know the frequency of every letter in the English alphabet, or the frequency of letters in whichever language the sender is using.
		Please note, these frequencies are averages, and E will not always constitute 12.7 % of all the letters in a text, and may not even be the most common letter.
	www.simonsingh.net /The_Black_Chamber/frequencyanalysis.html (241 words)

	Permutation cipher - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		The plaintext is then broken into segments of size e and the letters within that segment are permuted according to this key.
		Because the cipher doesn't change any of the characters, the ciphertext will have exactly the same letter frequencies as the underlying plaintext.
		This means that the cipher can in many cases be identified as a transposition by the close similarity of its letter statistics with the letter frequencies of the underlying language.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Permutation_cipher (331 words)

	Cryptopop's Hints (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-09-15)
		Although h is slightly more frequent than l, its higher frequency is due to its occurrence in short, common words such as "the" and "that".
		The most frequent letter to follow a vowel is n; to precede a vowel, h.
		If a double letter can be identified followed by a vowel two letters to the right(especially e), the in-between letter is most often l.
	www.cahlander.com /crypto/cryptopop.html (1001 words)

	Hasher Aging & Cognition Lab
		Within the series, frequencies of occurrence of different strings and of the letters composing the strings were varied orthogonally.
		The formation of global-level (string) memory units was indicated by judgments of string frequency being unaffected by either the frequencies of their component letters or experimental conditions (brief exposures) that prohibited accurate judgment of letter frequencies.
		Although judgments of letter frequency were sometimes biased by the frequency of strings containing the letters, the success with which the letter discriminated different letters of letter frequency did not depend on the activation of string-level memory units.
	www.psych.utoronto.ca /~hasher/abstracts/hock_86.htm (259 words)

	Letter frequencies: Facts and details from Encyclopedia Topic (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-09-15)
		The frequency of letters in text messages has often been studied for use in cryptography Cryptography quick summary:
		In mathematics, physics and signal processing, frequency analysis is a method to decompose a function, wave, or signal into its frequency components...
		Etaoin shrdlu is the approximate order of frequency of the twelve most commonly used letters in the english language....
	www.absoluteastronomy.com /encyclopedia/l/le/letter_frequencies.htm (661 words)

	KMR Consulting - Crypto!
		On the right you will see a list of the letters that haven't yet been used, a table showing the letter frequencies in the puzzle, and the number of hints used and time elapsed so far.
		The most common letters in English text are e, t, o, a, n, i, r, s, and h; the letters that appear most often in the puzzle may (but are not guaranteed to) be one of these.
		The letter frequencies and scores can appear on the left or the right, or you can choose not to show them at all.
	www.kmrconsulting.com /crypto.html (881 words)

	Frequency Analysis (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-09-15)
		Frequency analysis can be used to determine the encryption key if you know the length of the key.
		On this page, the frequency of letters occurring in the text in the Text box will be computed and compared to letter frequencies in the English language.
		A separate frequency analysis will be done for each letter in the key, where the length of the key is specified in the Key Length blank.
	www.thehumanitarian.org /crypt/frequency.php?text= (180 words)

	Letter Frequencies in the English Language
		The frequency of the letters of the alphabet in English
		However, this gives the frequency of letters in English text, which is dominated by a relatively small number of common words.
		The frequency of letters at the beginnings of words is different again.
	www.nd.edu /~busiforc/handouts/cryptography/letterfrequencies.html (221 words)

	Learning About the Letter Name Subset of the Vocabulary
		Similarity of letter shape was the major determinant of confusion errors in both countries, and children were especially likely to interchange letters that were similar in shape as well as name.
		Errors were also affected by letter frequency, both general frequency and occurrence of letters in children’s own names.
		Differences in letter names and letter frequencies between English and Portuguese led to certain differences in the patterns of performance for children in the two countries.
	brettkessler.com /~bkessler/LetterNameLearnUSBrazil (254 words)

	[No title] (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-09-15)
		Each subsequent letter of the word is selected based on biletter frequencies, and is therefore dependent on the letter that precedes it.
		The second letter of the word is selected based on biletter frequencies, and is therefore dependent on the first letter.
		Each subsequent letter is selected based on triple letter frequencies and is therefore dependent on the two letters that precede it.
	math.ucsd.edu /~crypto/java/MONKEY (333 words)

	Curculio » Latin Scrabble II: Calculating Letter Frequencies (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-09-15)
		This is not the ideal method for calculating letter frequencies.
		H is probably the most overrepresented letter, since very few different Latin words have an H in them, but those few include all the forms of hic, haec, hoc, which come up over and over.
		R and S are probably underrepresented, since the complete set of all possible distinct forms of all Latin words would have tens of thousands of each just in the verb endings.
	63.247.138.2 /~curculio/index.php?p=19 (658 words)

	Phonetic alphabets, wordlists, texts, word frequency
		UK English wordlist with frequency classification, version 1.01 (zip, 200k).
		The top 1000 words in UK English, based on classic novels and Rosengren's modified frequency.
		Frequency info from the British National Corpus (or here) at Brighton, by Adam Kilgarriff.
	www.bckelk.ukfsn.org /menu.html (366 words)

	Bible Code Digest.com - Ingermanson Response
		In the fifth paragraph after Table 1 in the paper, we stated, “The possibility that differences in letter frequencies between the two texts might account for some of the difference in discovery rates was considered.
		For 12 of the 22 letters, the frequency rank is identical.
		Those letters for which the rank was either identical or different by one accounted for 78.9% of all the letters in the Ezekiel text.
	www.biblecodedigest.com /page.php/243 (1631 words)

	Cryptography Tutorial - Computing Letter Frequencies as a Tool to Break Ciphers (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-09-15)
		Afterwards compare the letter frequencies with those of the English language (assuming that the cipher text stems from an English plain text).
		a) the most frequent letter of the English language is "e" (with about 12%) followed by t,i,o,a,n,s,r which is very helpful to break the cipher text.
		Find letter correspondences, form simple words like "the" and use those to gather clues to find the remaining cipher letters.
	www.antilles.k12.vi.us /math/cryptotut/frequencies.htm (4275 words)

	HW2 (Due Feb 13 in class)
		To help flatten frequencies we may use the following method, which is a generalization of exclusive-or encryption.
		This method preserves the letter frequency in the plaintext and so one can search for the plaintext from a given cipher text by comparing the frequency of each letter against the known common frequency in the underlying language.
		In the secret key, each letter is represented by its 7-bit ASCII code followed by an odd parity bit.
	www.cs.uml.edu /~wang/cs561/hw2.htm (290 words)

	Introduction to Cryptography - English Letter Frequencies (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-09-15)
		This table tells the average frequency with which each letter of the alphabet occurs in normal English text.
		For example, the letter "a" occurs about 8.167% of the time.
		The english letter frequency chart that appears on your intro to cryptology page comes from Robert Edward Lewand's Cryptographical Mathematics.
	www.stanford.edu /~gregng/crypto/freq-en.html (142 words)

	[No title]
		The letter frequencies observed in the sequence of
		letters to the histogram of English letter probabilities, one is led to the correct value of
		It displays (in red) the histogram of observed letter frequencies, alongside a (blue) histogram of english letter probabilities.
	math.ucsd.edu /~crypto/java/EARLYCIPHERS/Vigenere.html (400 words)

	Cryptography--Caesar Cipher
		Caesar decided that shifting each letter in the message would be his standard algorithm, and so he informed all of his generals of his decision, and was then able to send them secured messages.
		That is, if the key word is bam, then every third letter of the plaintext starting at the first would be shifted by 'b' (=1) and every third letter beginning at the second would be shifted by 'a' (=0) and every third letter beginning at the third would be shifted by 'm' (=12).
		That is, for a given character, say 'a', we compute the square of the frequency of that character shifted by one of the possible Caesar shifts and then divide it by the English frequency of that character.
	www.trincoll.edu /depts/cpsc/cryptography/caesar.html (778 words)

	Nineteenth Century: Statistics
		Here is one measurement of the relative frequencies of the letters in English text.
		So ``e'' is the most commonly occurring letter, with a frequency of 12.7%.
		If we suspect a monoalphabetic cipher (where each letter of plaintext is represented by a single distinct letter of ciphertext), and if we have a large enough piece of ciphertext, we can compute the frequencies of the letters in the ciphertext and match them up according to the table.
	www.math.okstate.edu /~wrightd/crypt/crypt-intro/node9.html (247 words)

	English letter frequencies (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-09-15)
		A letter of recommendation for a national competition for innovative uses of technology in collegiate teaching.
		The top ten letters with frequencies, which occur at the beginning of words:
		The top ten letters with frequencies, which occur at the end of words:
	www.central.edu /homepages/LintonT/classes/spring01/cryptography/letterfreq.html (138 words)

	Tricky Hangman
		The computer convict also uses the dictionary to filter potential secret words based on letter frequencies and past correct guesses (which makes finding the word almost too successful to be fun).
		We rebuild these for each move and allow to the hangman to click only on the underscore (unresolved) letters to indicate which positions are to be filled by the convict's current letter guess.
		I guess it make more sense for the guesses to be made based on a table of letter frequencies in the English language.
	www.delphiforfun.org /Programs/Hangman2.htm (718 words)

	Solving Cryptograms (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-09-15)
		We will be comparing the frequency that a letter occurs in a sample compared to the number of times it is predicted to occur.
		A graph of the frequencies of the letters in the cipher is shown below.
		The most frequent letter is probably E, so write an E underneath each place this letter appears in the cipher.
	www.lhs.logan.k12.ut.us /~jsmart/crypto.htm (957 words)

	Please title this page. (etxtfreq.htm)
		One letter words: A, I. Two letter words: Of, to, in, it, is, be, as, at, so, we, he, by, or, on, do, if, me, my, up, an.
		Three letter words: The, and, for, are, but, not, you, all, any, can, had, her, was, one, our, out, day, get, has, him.
		The most common pairs (in order of frequency) were "e ", " t", "th", "he", which were all more common than the 13th most common single letter but less common than the 12th most common single letter.
	www.piclist.org /techref/method/compress/etxtfreq.htm (1006 words)

	Session 10: Week 20/21: Letter Frequencies (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-09-15)
		One of the simplest tools in the armoury of a code breaker is a program to count the relative frequency of each letter appearing in the cyphertext.
		For any given language there will be a characteristic distribution of letter frequencies in the uncoded message (the "plaintext").
		The most commonly used letter in English is e, by a wide margin; t is in second place, with a and o nearly tied for third; i, n and r are also very commonly used.
	www.eeng.dcu.ie /~mcmullin/swe1/swe1labs/node43.html (303 words)

	CS 313e - Program 8 (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-09-15)
		Though letter frequencies are well-known for general English text, it is sometimes useful to study letter frequencies in text from a certain domain.
		The associated values will be objects that store the frequency of the letters - you choose the type for these objects.
		After your program has processed the input file(s), print the characters and their frequencies (first in alphabetical order on the keys, and then in decreasing order of frequency) to the screen.
	www.cs.utexas.edu /~eberlein/cs313/prog8-fall2004.html (275 words)

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