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Topic: List of Caliphs

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	Caliph - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		Caliph is the term or title for the Islamic leader of the Ummah, or community of Islam.
		With the defeat of these peripheral caliphates, the caliphate of the Ottomans began increasingly to be considered the undisputed primary caliphate.
		Muslims believe that the Caliphate is the application of Messengership of Prophets (Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, until Jesus and Muhammad) as the institution to protect and order the Muslims according the Law of God (in the Qur'an and the Universe), with the structure imitating the structure of Heaven (Mulkiyah/Government) and Earth (Ummah/People).
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Caliph (1999 words)

	Caliph (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-06)
		The Caliph also enforced the laws of the state, but the laws were not largely made by him but rather derived mostly by others from religious principles and texts acting as a modern constitution.
		Hasan is often cited as the fifth caliph in many classical sources, for example the writings of Suyuti, however in reality he didn't rule as the actual caliph.
		As to the Chronology of Caliphs; It is mentioned in the text that the institution of Caliphate may be rectivated.
	www.infothis.com /discuss/Caliph (1961 words)

	The Rightly-Guided Caliphs
		As successor to the Prophet, the Caliph was the head of the Muslim community and his primary responsibility was to continue in the path of the Prophet.
		After these four, the later Caliphs assumed the manners of kings and emperors and the true spirit of equality of ruler and ruled diminished to a considerable extent in the political life of Muslims.
		During his caliphate a navy was organized, administrative divisions of the state were revised, and many public projects were expanded and completed.
	www.islam101.com /history/people/companions/caliphs.htm (5330 words)

	Religions of Iran: History of Shi'ism (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-06)
		The caliphate of the time was anxious to guard against this appellation being given to the Shi'ite minority and thus to have Muslim society divided into sections comprised of a majority and a minority.
		The supporters of the caliph considered the caliphate to be a matter of the consensus of the community (ijma') and called those who objected the "opponents of allegiance." They claimed that the Shi'ah stood, therefore, opposed to Muslim society.
		During the caliphate of the "rightly-guided caliphs" (11/632-35/656) the Shi'ites were under a certain amount of pressure which became much greater during the Umayyad Caliphate (40/661-132/750) when they were no longer protected in any way against destruction of their lives and property.
	www.iranchamber.com /religions/history_of_shiism.php (6295 words)

	Four Caliphs - 30-Days Muslim World Prayer Guide (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-06)
		Muhammad’s successors (the four caliphs) were appointed by the Muslim community to carry out the leadership and rule of Islam throughout the Arabian peninsula and other parts of the world.
		By military force the first caliph, Abu Bakr, brought all the tribes in the Arabian peninsula under the rule of Islam.
		The Shiites, the followers of Ali, the fourth caliph and first convert to Islam, became strong opposers of the Umayyads (the tribe from which the third caliph came).
	www.30-days.net /islam/caliphs.htm (448 words)

	Short Introduction to Shi'ism (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-06)
		The caliph Uthman, whose favoritism to his own family had raised many hackles in the Ummah, was assassinated by rebel forces out of Egypt.
		As Ali claimed the caliphate, however, the governor of Syria, Mu'awiyah, a member of Uthman's Umayyad family, raised a challenge.
		When in 661 Ali was assassinated by a member of a faction called the Kharijites, Mu'awiyah claimed the caliphate and founded the Umayyad dynasty.
	faculty.juniata.edu /tuten/islamic/shiism.html (802 words)

	Caliph, Caliphs, Imam, Imams, Muslim Early History Chart
		From about the 13th century various monarchs throughout the Muslim world, particularly the Ottoman sultans, assumed the title caliph indiscriminately without regard to the prescribed requirements of the caliphate.
		In the 19th century, with the advent of Christian powers in the Near East, the sultan began to emphasize his role as caliph in an effort to gain the support of Muslims living outside his realm.
		After the war, Turkish nationalists deposed the sultan, and the caliphate was finally abolished (March 1924) by the Turkish Grand National Assembly.
	mb-soft.com /believe/txh/calip00.htm (271 words)

	Islam
		The symbolic crowns in the diagram are for the Prophet and the Caliphs (Khalifah, "successor").
		Sayf-udDawla ("Sword of the State") became a celebrated foe of Romania, but he was largely unnsuccessful against the revival of Roman power, and his son experienced devastating defeats, at one point with Aleppo and H.oms themselves falling, though retained with the payment of tribute.
		One reason that 'AbdurRah.mân III may have proclaimed himself Caliph, besides the general decline of the Abbasids in power the prestige, was the new Fatimid Caliphate in North Africa.
	www.friesian.com /islam.htm (9025 words)

	Iranica.com - HISTORIOGRAPHY
		Despite the collapse of caliphal power and the political fragmentation of the Muslim world, comprehensive, "universal" or general, histories and chronicles continued to be written, especially under Buyid patronage, but notso much in the Baghdad-centric and parochial-minded style of T®abari.
		Although he lists rulers of the Persians, Romans, Greeks, Copts, Israelites, Lakhmids, Ghassanids, Himyarites, Kinda, and Qorayæ, the "Arab kings of Islam," the Persian kings are given a disproportionate amount of space.
		Idem, Reinterpreting Islamic Historiography: Ha@ru@n al-Rash^d and the Narrative of the ¿Abba@sid Caliphate, Cambridge, 1999a.
	www.iranica.com /articles/v12f3/v12f3036c.html (15278 words)

	Medieval Sourcebook: Abul Hasan Ali Al-Masu'di (ca. 895?-957 CE): The Book of Golden Meadows, c. 940 CE
		Then the Caliph said: "And this slave-girl, who is concealed by the curtain, she also recollects it." So she repeated every letter of it, and the poet went away unrewarded.
		Jafar asked that the Caliph's instructions might be explained to him, and when he heard them, cautioned Mesrour to beware how he carried into execution an order which had evidently been given under the influence of wine, lest, when their sovereign should be restored to himself, it might be followed by unavailing repentance and remorse.
		The Caliph promised a reward to any one who would capture it; an attendant went down, caught the fish and regained the shore, but as he approached the spot where Al Mamoun was sitting, the fish slipped from his grasp, fell into the water, and sank like a stone to the bottom.
	www.fordham.edu /halsall/source/masoudi.html (15184 words)

	Fulani Empire biography .ms (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-06)
		In 1815 dan Fodio retired from the Sultanate and the empire passed to his son Muhammed Bello.
		He built up the new capital a Sokoto turning it into a major centre, and the empire in the nineteenth century is often referred to as the Sokoto Caliphate.
		Dan Fodio's brother Abdullahi continued to rule in the west, and this position, known as the emirate of Gwandu, was passed to his heirs but remained subordinated to Sokoto.
	sokoto-caliphate.biography.ms (813 words)

	eighth doctrine
		Further by the majority of the Holy Companions (Radi Allah A’nhum) he was elected to the seat of the caliphate of the prophet (the leader of the faithful).
		When in accordance with the Divine Command the seat of caliphate has been assigned to the first three leaders of the faithful then (Allah forbid it) that the followers of the Shia faith regarded them to be the usurpers of the seat of the caliphate as well as of Imamat (religious leadership).
		We sunnis have to think that the subsequent caliphate of Hazrat Farooq-e-Azam (Radi Allaho Anho) and of Hazrat Zun-nurain Usman Ghani (Radi Allaho Anho) followed by the caliphate of the father of Hasnain Hazrat Ali (Radi Allaho anho) were logical and Justified and that none of them was an usurper.
	www.sunnirazvi.org /doctrine/eighth.htm (781 words)

	Dhimmitude Past and Present : An Invented or Real History? (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-06)
		Jurists from the later Middle Ages and after, usually list the successive ordinances of caliphs, which are usually referred to by Muslim historians and dhimmi sources.
		Among the military elements of the dhimmi condition is the prohibition for dhimmis to carry or possess weapons.
		It is mentioned in the earliest legal texts, from the beginning of the Islamic conquest and is attributed to the second caliph Umar b.
	www.dhimmitude.org /archive/by_lecture_10oct2002.htm (5480 words)

	MY SECOND HOME
		It was also during the period of the rule of the second caliph that new social and economic forces led to the uneven distribution of the public treasury (bayt al-mal) among the people, an act which was alter the cause of bewildering class differences and rightful and bloody struggles among Muslims.
		Altogether, the policy of these three caliphs, who were in power for twenty-five years, was to execute and apply Islamic laws and principles in society in accordance with ijtihad and what appeared most wise at the time to the caliphs themselves.
		Hasan handed the caliphate to Mu'awiyah on the condition that the caliphate would be returned to him after the death of Mu'awiyah and that no harm would come to his partisans.
	mkidwai.tripod.com (12508 words)

	Society Religion and Spirituality Islam History Dynasties and Empires Ummayad (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-06)
		Caliph Yazid and the Umayyad dynasties - A biography of the son of Mu'awiyah, who became the second ruler of the dynasty; also responsible for the Battle of Kerbala.
		The Umayyad Caliphate - A time line for the dynasty, with a map, and a list of Caliphs, on Bartleby.com.
		Umayyad Caliphate - This outline focusses on its impact in Syria, and relations with the Christian community.
	www.iper1.com /iper1-odp/scat/id/Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Islam/History/Dynasties_and_Empires/Ummayad (391 words)

	Shi'a Real Ahl al-Sunnah
		As for the sahaba who were not Shi`as, as well as the caliphs, kings, and princes who ruled the Muslims from the time of Abu Bakr and till the reign of the Abbaside caliph Muhammad ibn al-Rasheed al-Mu`tasim, they never recognized the caliphate of Ali ibn Abu Talib at all.
		I visited Ahmad ibn Hanbal after having added the name of Ali, Allah be pleased with him,[23] to the list of the three ["righteous caliphs"].
		Had they excluded him, their scheme would have become evident to everyone who is wise and who researches, so they misled the public into believing that the fourth caliph was the gate of knowledge Ali ibn Abu Talib, Allah glorified his countenance.
	www.al-islam.org /real/6.htm (1731 words)

	Shi'ism and Its Types During the Early Centuries - Rasul Ja'fariyan
		Until the time when `Umar was in the office of the caliphate, the generality of people, excepting the followers of Imam Ali, followed the decrees (fatwa) of the State, not attaching much significance to the difference that existed at that time between the practice of the Prophet (s) and that of others.
		This creed did not acknowledge the legitimacy of the caliphate of Imam Ali (`a), and its argument was that the third caliph was killed by the Imam or at his instigation.
		In them the concept of Imamate, aside from the aspect of worthiness for caliphate and leadership, is projected in its most sublime form as a divine office held by the infallible Imams as heirs to the knowledge of the prophets, especially that of the Noble Messenger (s).
	www.al-islam.org /al-tawhid/types/shiism.htm (13661 words)

	[No title]
		Fine silken textiles were highly valued in the Islamic c ultures of the early Middle Ages and were major items in the treasuries of the Abbasid Caliphs.
		This is revealed in the list of treasures left by the great Caliph Haroun al-Rashid in 809 AD, which included 500 pieces (lengths) of velvet.
		Next in importance was the Caliph\rquote s armoury, followed by cash, jewellery, perfume and fragrances, and various utensils.
	www.florilegium.org /files/TEXTILES/Hst-of-Velvet-art.rtf (893 words)

	SHI’A (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-06)
		The first caliph was selected through the vote of the majority of the companions, the second caliph by the will and testament of the first, and the third by a six-man council whose members and rules of procedure were organized and determined by the second caliph.
		On his first day as caliph, in an address to the people, Ali said, "O People, be aware that the difficulties which you faced during the apostolic period of the Prophet of God have come upon you once again and seized you.
		The first war in the caliphate of Ali, which is called the "Battle of the Camel," was caused by the unfortunate class differences created during the period of rule of the second caliph as a result of the new socioeconomic forces which caused an uneven distribution of the public treasury among members of the community.
	www2.mozcom.com /~habib/islamstu.htm (21113 words)

	Individualization of Punishment in Minor Offences
		Among the punishments which were previously imposed on minor offences were flening the criminal's face with paint, or forcing the offender to ride a donkey or a mule in reverse.
		Once, the Caliph Umar flened the face of a man who gave false evidence and forced him to ride a mule in reverse.
		Combating crime with penalty differs according to the type of criminals and the gravity of the crime.
	www.witness-pioneer.org /vil/Books/MM_FCI/p4ch3.html (2667 words)

	Current Awareness Bulletin - Details (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-06)
		All 13 ferries included in the study operating in the North or Baltic Seas were awarded good or very good grades.
		ACP had planned to close the west lane of the canal at Gatun locks from July 5 to carry out essential maintenance works.
		"It is, of course, the magical waterway which separates two continents, the straits which have fascinated mariners, classicists, poets, kings and caliphs for several thousand years.
	www.imo.org /InfoResource/contents.asp?doc_id=1119&topic_id=402&header=false&margin=no&id=1232&show_month=235 (1059 words)

	[No title] (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-06)
		Because of his close relation with Muhammad, they were held in high esteem by the Arabs, and much dispute occurred between them and the Ummayyads.
		Having asserted their claims to the Caliphate for some time, they commenced open hostilities in 746 A.D. Abu `l-Abbas as-Saffah ("the blood shedder") defeated the Ummayad Caliph Marwan II and became the Caliph at al-Kufa in 749 A.D. and Marwan II was slained.
		During al-Musta`sim's reign, the grandson of Ghengis Khan, Hulaku, entered Persia and became Sultan in A.D. In 1258, he captured Baghdad and put to death al-Musta`sim.
	answering-islam.org /Index/A/abbasid.html (128 words)

	Online Islamic Library of www.dawateisami.net (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-06)
		Further by the majority of the Holy Companions (Radi Allaho A'nhum) he was elected to the seat of the Caliphate of the Prophet (the leader of the faithful).
		However the Shia and Alids had developed a kind of animosity against him on the basis of false claim that the seat of caliphate was the right of Moula Ali (Let Allah's favour be on his countenance).
		We Sunnis have to think that the subsequent caliphate of Hazrat Farooq-e-Azam (Radi Allaho Anho) and of Hazrat Zun-nurain Usman Ghani (Radi Allaho Anho) followed by the caliphate of the father of Hussain Hazrat Ali (Radi Allaho Anho) were logical and justified and that none of them was an usurper.
	www.dawateislami.net /services/library?artid=5 (859 words)

	[No title]
		I have been following this list and saw a reference to a "synth" list that may have people wanting to sell appropriate pieces but I inadvertantly deleted the message.
		A dealer in DC was holding a used D4 for me, sold it by mistake, and let me have a new Spitfire (arrgh) for $175.
		By this token, if the Abbassid caliphs > > had maintained control of Europe, then Arabian music would be great > > and Wagner would be a lost footnote to history.
	www.ibiblio.org /emusic-l/back-issues/vol084/emusic-l.log9512a (10403 words)

	UT - MENIC: Arts and Humanities: History: Middle Ages: The Islamic Empires (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-06)
		Encyclopedia.com: The Caliphate - brief article on the history of the Caliphate as an institution and its various permutations throughout history.
		The Caliphate - article from the World Civilizations internet anthology at Washington State University.
		The Islamic Caliphate - brief (one paragraph) description of each of the dynasties that claimed the caliphate through the Middle Ages.
	link.lanic.utexas.edu /menic/Arts_and_Humanities/History/Islam (599 words)

	Islamic History in Arabia and Middle East (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-06)
		The art of calligraphy is still very much alive in the Arab world and wherever the Arabic alphabet is used.
		The list of everyday uses is almost endless: coins and paper money bear the work of expert calligraphers, wall posters and advertising signs in every town show the calligrapher's art, as do the cover and title page of every book, and the major headlines in every newspaper and magazine have been written by hand.
		Calligraphy - the art of "beautiful writing" -continues to be something that is not only highly prized as ornament and decoration but is immensely practical and useful as well.
	www.islamicity.com /mosque/ihame/Ref3.htm (1808 words)

	Quseir Amra (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-06)
		Report of the 9th Session of the Committee
		Built in the early 8th century, this exceptionally well-preserved desert castle was both a fortress with a garrison and a residence of the Umayyad caliphs.
		The most outstanding features of this small pleasure palace are the reception hall and the hammam, both richly decorated with figurative murals that reflect the secular art of the time.
	whc.unesco.org /sites/327.htm (63 words)

	Wireless: The Dark Eye: Nedime - The Caliphs Daughter
		Wireless: The Dark Eye: Nedime - The Caliphs Daughter
		The Dark Eye: Nedime - The Caliphs Daughter (Cell)
		The first chapter of an ongoing adventure, The Dark Eye will transfer the player into a world of magic and adventure.
	wireless.gamespy.com /wireless/the-dark-eye-nedime-the-caliphs-daughter (151 words)

	Islamic Syllabus - History
		* Government consisted of many different departments - managed by officials appointed by the Caliph.
		Caliph, Caliphate, Bureaucracy, Emir, Shakh, Ahl (Family units)
		5.4 Use a modern map of the Middle East to list the countries within this region.
	www.iberr.org /history2.htm (1594 words)

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