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Topic: Logical reasoning

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	Logical positivism - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		Logical positivism (later referred to as logical empiricism, also referred to as neo-positivism) is a philosophy (of science) that originated in the Vienna Circle in the 1920s.
		Logical positivism was one of the early manifestations of analytic philosophy.
		Logical Positivism was immensely influential in philosophy of science, logic, and philosophy of language.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Logical_positivism (1120 words)

	Logical Reasoning as a Curriculum Area in School (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-18)
		Logic was certainly overawed by the extent of Aristotle's contribution; it is hardly an exaggeration to say that he not only invented but completed the main portion of logic he created, the study of syllogisms.
		The informal logic movement provides an existence proof for what is otherwise demonstrable: that there are ideas, theories, procedures in logic and the philosophy of language that can illuminate the use and evaluation of reasoning and argument which has traditionally been left to educated common sense.
		But if logical issues were clearly enunciated in curriculum objectives (as opposed to their ritual invocation among the aims) it might help to prevent teachers from asking children to deduce a universal generalization from observations of the behaviour of two proteins (cf.
	www.cavehill.uwi.edu /bnccde/epb/Logresc.html (4036 words)

	Reasoning, and What It Is To Be Rational
		At the end of this essay, there is an example, with commentary, of a position that is meant to be logical and reasonable stated in a fully explicit manner to show the various reasoning steps.
		If you try to attack one of his reasons, he shifts to others or to a different argument altogether, or thinks you are attacking the truth of his conclusion and does not see how your reasons have anything to do with it.
		The fact that the form or logic of the argument in the analogy and the form or logic in his argument are exactly the same, and that the form is what determines whether the conclusion follows from the evidence and reasons, mean nothing to him.
	www.akat.com /reasoning.htm (5275 words)

	Eight Rules of Interpretation
		The use of reason in the interpretation of Scripture is everywhere to be assumed.
		Finney stressed the need for definition and logic in theology and said the Bible must be understood on "fair principles of interpretation such as would be admitted in a court of justice" (Systematic Theology.
		Back of precedents are the basic judicial conceptions which are postulates of judicial reasoning, and farther back are the habits of life, the institutions of society, in which those conceptions had their origin....
	www.digistat.com /gcf/8rules.htm (1753 words)

	The LSAT Logical Reasoning (Arguments) Section: How to get a higher score. (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-18)
		Logical Reasoning questions constitute about half of the total LSAT questions.You will encounter at least two Logical Reasoning sections (three if the experimental is Logical Reasoning).
		Logical Reasoning questions test your ability to take apart an argument (a skill useful to lawyers).
		The flaws in the arguments are generally logical fallacies, such as ad hominem fallacy (attacking your opponent instead of his argument).
	www.lsattestpreparation.com /logical-reasoning.html (396 words)

	Analogical Reasoning
		Logical and analogical reasoning are sometimes viewed as mutually exclusive alternatives, but formal logic is actually a highly constrained and stylized method of using analogies.
		As this discussion indicates, analogy is a prerequisite for logical reasoning, which is a highly disciplined method of using repeated analogies.
		By diagrammatic reasoning, I mean reasoning which constructs a diagram according to a precept expressed in general terms, performs experiments upon this diagram, notes their results, assures itself that similar experiments performed upon any diagram constructed according to the same precept would have the same results, and expresses this in general terms.
	www.jfsowa.com /pubs/analog.htm (7422 words)

	The Atheism Web: Logic & Fallacies (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-18)
		The aim of this document is to explain the basics of logical reasoning, and hopefully improve the overall quality of debate.
		Logic in itself doesn't solve the problem of verifying the basic assertions which support arguments; for that, we need some other tool.
		This fallacy is the reverse of the Fallacy of Accident.
	www.infidels.org /news/atheism/logic.html (5794 words)

	Logical Lunacy
		Though it sounds contradictory, "logic" that does not bring a valid conclusion can still pass for "logic." We have found this "invalid logic" to be the "logic" of many who attack the purity of the Bible and other Scriptural truths.
		This weakness holds true for all forms and uses of logic, even "logical conclusions" that are based on supposed "universal constants." The speed of light and the effects of "gravity" are considered "constant" by scientists, but despite all their tests and observations, they cannot prove these physical "constants" are universal throughout time and the universe.
		We contend true logic must be defined with God as the ABSOLUTE standard, but Norris and others treat logic or reason as if they are independent of God, and God and His word must conform to (their view of) it to be "logical" or worthy of consideration.
	members.citynet.net /morton/logic.htm (5634 words)

	Bradley Morris, Ph.D.
		Deductive reasoning is the process of drawing inferences that are necessarily true and includes evaluations of verbal descriptions, judgments about when evidence is needed and when it is not needed, and syllogistic inferences.
		However, because logic is nearly always presented linguistically, an understanding of the mechanisms of cognition and language is required for an accurate account of logical performance.
		For example, someone with a full understanding of logical reasoning should evaluate a contradiction as “false” before evidence and refuse evidence, because it is unnecessary for evaluating the statement.
	www.gvsu.edu /psych/faculty/morris.html (1451 words)

	LEO: Logic
		When you attempt to employ logic to support claims in your papers, your reasoning is sometimes weakened because you are presenting fallacious arguments.
		A logical demonstration of a belief, however, must be conclusive and convincing to be effective; any doubtful premises leads the audience to believe that the conclusion is weak.
		To construct effective logical arguments, writers must avoid generalizations; once an exception to a generalization is found, the argument that the generalization supports is discredited.
	leo.stcloudstate.edu /acadwrite/logic.html (1986 words)

	Accelerate Your Child’S Logical Reasoning Skills
		Unfortunately, logical reasoning is not a switch that can be turned on in a child’s mind.
		Logical reasoning involves specific skills that must be practiced and honed in order to be applied later to computation, mathematical problem solving and basic life situations.
		Logic Matrixes: For older children, logic matrixes are a wonderful tool in using the process of elimination and multiple-step reasoning.
	www.educate.com /newsletter/0502/reasoning.cfm (533 words)

	Logical Fallacies and the Art of Debate
		In a debate format that limits each debater's speaking time, it is simply not reasonable to expect every proposition or conclusion to follow precisely and rigorously from a clear set of premises stated at the outset.
		Logic is a useful tool in this process, but it is not the only tool -- after all, "plausibility" is a fairly subjective matter that does not follow strict logical rules.
		Nor is this intended as a rigorous philosophical treatise on logical reasoning.
	www.csun.edu /~dgw61315/fallacies.html (5262 words)

	Ethics Quality Change Management
		Put this laminate into the hands of your managers, teams and employees, and the ethical and logical reasoning in your organization will improve and many senseless failures modes will be prevented.
		It takes several forms of organizational reasoning to properly identify and define problems and projects, to examine and refine issues, to find root causes, to execute effectively, to work with others, and to properly support decision-making in organizations.
		Tri-Modal Reasoning and Dialectic, Innate and Empirical Reasoning.
	www.ethicsquality.com /chgmgt.htm (820 words)

	Philip N. Johnson-Laird's Home Page (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-18)
		We discovered that people make systematic errors in reasoning, and that there is a large effect of the content of premises on the form of conclusions that they draw [see our joint publications 1969-1973 and our book, Psychology of Reasoning, 1972].
		Our main discovery was the corroboration of a key interaction predicted by the model theory: reasoners are faster and more accurate in inferring that an event is possible as opposed to necessary, but they are faster and more accurate in inferring that an event is not necessary as opposed to not possible.
		as 'non-monotonic' reasoning) in collaboration with Paolo Legrenzi (University of Venice), Maria Sonino Legrenzi and Vittorio Girotto (University of Aix-en-Provence and Trieste University).
	webscript.princeton.edu /~psych/PsychSite/~phil.html (1599 words)

	Automated Reasoning
		Reasoning is the ability to make inferences, and automated reasoning is concerned with the building of computing systems that automate this process.
		The reason is, of course, that the statement of the completeness of LK only has to assert, for each entailment relation, the existence of a proof tree but a reasoning program has the more difficult task of actually having to construct one.
		Standard logic, including Horn logic, is monotonic which means that enlarging an axiom set by adding new axioms simply enlarges the set of theorems derivable from it; negation-by-failure, however, is non-monotonic and the addition of new program clauses to an existing Prolog program may cause some goals to cease from being theorems.
	plato.stanford.edu /entries/reasoning-automated (12208 words)

	1__~
		The relatively circumscribed contemporary inquiry into the logic of the example is also surprising in light of the widespread use of the instrument in aesthetic and legal modes of reasoning.
		Rhetoric Aristotle distinguishes “logical” proofs from those non-logical proofs derived from consideration of the character (ethos) of the speaker and the emotional state (pathos) of the audience.
		To accept argument by example as a reasoning from part to part is to accept, in the rhetorical context, the logical primacy of free human action or behavior.
	www.public.iastate.edu /~consigny/example.html (3881 words)

	Logical Reasoning
		Sentential logic or propositional logic, consists of a sentential languge, a semantic interpretation of that language, and a sentential derivation system.
		Deductive (or logical) Reasoning is the process of demonstrating that if certain statements are accepted as true, then other statements can be shown to follow from them.
		This may be done by inductive reasoning, inference from a number of observed facts, or by deductive reasoning from a set of principles.
	www.andrews.edu /~calkins/math/webtexts/numb05.htm (1751 words)

	LSAT Section III: Logical Reasoning
		I fails to specify the many reasons younger people have for saving money, and it fails to identify which of those reasons is the strongest.
		This is the reason that small animals, like squirrels, can run up a tree trunk almost as fast as they can move on level ground, whereas large animals tend to slow down when they are moving uphill.
		Anyone who owns a portrait presenting his or her father in an unflattering light would for that reason alone be ethically justified in destroying it.
	jan.ucc.nau.edu /~pms/prelaw/LSATSectionIII.html (4317 words)

	[No title]
		Logic will let you analyze an argument or a piece of reasoning, and work out whether it is correct or not.
		One problem with boolean logic is that people don't have to be consistent in their goals and desires.
		In logic, the term is generally used for a form of technically incorrect argument -- especially if the argument appears valid or convincing.
	www.kulikovskyonline.net /hermeneutics/logic.htm (4787 words)

	Logical reasoning -- Facts, Info, and Encyclopedia article (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-18)
		Logical reasoning -- Facts, Info, and Encyclopedia article
		(Reasoning from the general to the particular (or from cause to effect)) Deductive reasoning
		(Reasoning from detailed facts to general principles) Inductive reasoning
	www.absoluteastronomy.com /encyclopedia/l/lo/logical_reasoning.htm (95 words)

	PowerScore \| LSAT Help \| Logical Reasoning Question Stems
		Many students ask the question, "When doing Logical Reasoning problems, should I read the question stem before reading the stimulus?" The answer is an emphatic "No." However, we would like to take a moment to explain the reasoning behind this recommendation:
		Understanding the stimulus is the key to answering any question, and reading the question stem first tends to undermine the ability of students to fully comprehend the information in the stimulus.
		In short, the question stem is a poor indicator of difficulty because question difficulty is more directly related to the complexity of the stimulus and the corresponding answer choices.
	www.powerscore.com /lsat/help/qstem.htm (556 words)

	[No title]
		I looked for approaches to logical reasoning in a writing guide written by two English professors [1], in a study guide for the Medical College Admissions Tests (MCAT) [3], and in the official information booklet for the Law School Admission Test (LSAT) [4].
		Analytical reasoning questions are in fact combinatorial puzzles; e.g., restrictions are given on the order in which 7 musicians will play and you must deduce the actual order.
		We must reason when we motivate, when we pick our notation, when we set the order of your material, when we organize the presentation of a lengthy argument, when we work out examples.
	www.cs.cornell.edu /Info/People/gries/symposium/maurer.htm (2879 words)

	30 Days to the LSAT (Logical Reasoning Mini Test)
		The primary reason they gave in support of this claim was that cigarette smoking was not regulated by the Federal Drug Administration.
		The logical gap in the argument that needs to be filled is the link between substances that are regulated by the Federal Drug Administration and substances that are addictive.
		Moreover, to make the argument logically correct, the link between them must be such that the fact that something is not regulated entails that it is not addictive.
	www.west.net /~stewart/lsat/ql_reaso.htm (3412 words)

	Logical Environmental Reasoning for a Vegetarian Lifestyle
		This essay aims to explain logically, using verifiable evidence, why a vegetarian lifestyle will help our planet and the Earth's population as a whole.
		First lets start with what is oversimplified factual reasoning without the use of statistics.
		After forgetting the statistics I had read and by reasoning through this in my own head, I figured that there has to be someone out there who isn’t a militant vegan and has little to gain from “lying” about these statistical facts.
	www.enviroveggie.com (2213 words)

	Mechanized Reasoning (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-18)
		To understand what automated reasoning is, we must first understand what reasoning is. Reasoning is the process of drawing conclusions from facts.
		For the reasoning to be sound, these conclusions must follow inevitably from the facts from which they are drawn.
		Indeed, reasoning as used here refers to logical reasoning, not of common-sense reasoning or probabilistic reasoning.
	www-formal.stanford.edu /clt/ARS/ars-db.html (375 words)

	Reasoning \| Logical Thinking \| Intelligent \| Thinking \| Questia.com Online Library
		Reasoning, Necessity, and Logic: Developmental Perspectives The...in the Computer Age OVERTON W. Ed.
		Analysis and Reasoning 49 6 Analysis as reasoning about reasoning 49 7 Differences between categorical and...
		Reasoning: Representation and Process in Children and Adults (1975)
	www.questia.com /library/psychology/cognitive-psychology/reasoning.jsp (443 words)

	Partition-Based Logical Reasoning
		In all cases, the basic approach is to convert a graphical representation of the problem into a tree-structured representation, where each node in the tree represents a tightly-connected subproblem, and the arcs represent the loose coupling between subproblems.
		In the MP algorithm, reasoning is performed locally in each partition, and relevant results are propagated toward the goal partition to provide a global solution.
		To maximize the effectiveness of partition-based reasoning, we must (1) minimize the coupling between partitions, to reduce information being passed between nodes, and (2) minimize local inference within each partition.
	www.ksl.stanford.edu /projects/RKF/Partitioning/index.shtml (769 words)

	GRE Logical Reasoning (Sample)
		a sample GRE Logical Reasoning question, along with a "QuickTip" and a detailed analysis of the question.
		You'll be given a one-paragraph passage (an argument), along with a question relating to that passage.
		The third answer choice (we'll call it "C") is irrelevant to the argument, which relies on a logical connection between nudity and obscenity, not on any logical connection between federal funding and obscenity.
	www.west.net /~stewart/gre/lr_sampl.htm (700 words)

	The Reasoning Page
		This page does not solely focus on argumentation in natural language, but broadens the arena to address the issue of the nature and contexts of good reasoning.
		Thus, the page includes everything from formal logic resources (because in many contexts formal reasoning is good and appropriate reasoning) to resources in rhetoric (despite what Plato thought, persuasion is not inimical to reasoning).
		-- sample tests and logical puzzles as used on the law school admittance test.
	pegasus.cc.ucf.edu /~janzb/reasoning (441 words)

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