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Topic: Loschmidt

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	Physics Today March 2001
		Moving to Vienna at the age of 20, Loschmidt was attracted by the lectures in chemistry and physics at the Polytechnic Institute and the university.
		The main sources of error in Loschmidt's estimate of the molecular diameter were errors in the measurements of the mean free path and in the estimate of the density of liquid air.
		Loschmidt argued that temperature would depend on height in a gas in vertical equilibrium in a uniform gravitational field.
	www.physicstoday.org /pt/vol-54/iss-3/p45.html (3357 words)

	ENTROPY: Can we decrease entropy ?
		Loschmidt and Maxwell asserted that, if there were a stratification of temperature in a column of gas subject to gravity, the construction of a perpetual motion machine of the second kind would be possible.
		Loschmidt, however, was convinced that a perpetual motion machine of the second kind was compatible with the second law of thermodynamics.
		Loschmidt accepted the second law in such a general form only (more precisely: he believed that the second law could be derived from the mechanical principle of least action).
	users.aol.com /atrupp/loschmid.htm (4711 words)

	Loschmidt's paradox - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		Loschmidt's paradox, also known as the reversibility paradox, states that if there is a motion of a system that leads to a steady decrease of H (increase of entropy) with time, then there is certainly another allowed state of motion of the system, found by time reversal, in which H must increase.
		One possible resolution of Loschmidt's paradox is to hypothesize that there is a so-called arrow of time in the Universe.
		One possible mechanism for an arrow of time is to assume that time itself is defined by changes in cosmic entropy; another is to assume that low-level violations of time reversal symmetry at the particle physics level are somehow driving cosmic entropy changes.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Loschmidt%27s_paradox (301 words)

	ScienceWeek
		Loschmidt anticipated the ring structure of benzene, so that some historians claim that the assertion of Friedrich Kekule (1829-1896) that idea of the benzene ring came to him in a dream is probably fallacious, since Kekule most likely read Loschmidt's published paper on benzene and benzene derivatives.
		Loschmidt arrived at a size somewhat less than 10^(-7) centimeters for the diameter of the molecules in air, which is close to the accepted value of 0.3 x 10^(-7).
		Loschmidt was the first to publish corrections to the ideal gas law, corrections due to both finite molecular size and time delays during collision, that were compared with experiment.
	scienceweek.com /2004/rmps-15.htm (1496 words)

	ScienceWeek (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-20)
		Loschmidt anticipated the ring structure of benzene, so that some historians claim that the assertion of Friedrich Kekule (1829-1896) that idea of the benzene ring came to him in a dream is probably fallacious, since Kekule most likely read Loschmidt's published paper on benzene and benzene derivatives.
		Loschmidt arrived at a size somewhat less than 10^(-7) centimeters for the diameter of the molecules in air, which is close to the accepted value of 0.3 x 10^(-7).
		Loschmidt was the first to publish corrections to the ideal gas law, corrections due to both finite molecular size and time delays during collision, that were compared with experiment.
	www.scienceweek.com /2004/rmps-15.htm (1496 words)

	HYLE 7-1 (2001): Book Review: Pioneering Ideas for the Physical and Chemical Sciences. Josef Loschmidt’s Contributions ...
		The long subtitle clarifies the scope and aims of the 33 contributions to the volume in honor of Josef Loschmidt (1821-1895), edited by Wilhelm Fleischhacker and Thomas Schönfeld from the Institutes for Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Inorganic Chemistry, respectively, at the University of Vienna.
		Not surprisingly, the first topic regards Loschmidt’s own philosophy and the philosophy of science of his times; surprising is rather the shaky quality of many assessments of Loschmidt’s place in the history of chemical thought.
		However, since Loschmidt moved to Vienna at the age of 21 to study physics and chemistry, Schuster’s claim of a decisive, long lasting influence of Herbart’ philosophy on Loschmidt’s molecular conceptions seems to me not enough grounded.
	www.hyle.org /journal/issues/7/rev_cerruti.htm (1142 words)

	johann josef loschmidt (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-20)
		Johann Josef Loschmidt (March 15 1821 - July 8 1895) was an Austrian physicist and chemist.
		Born in Počerny; near Carlsbad (today in the Karlovy Vary Region of the Czech Republic), he became professor for physical chemistry at the University of Vienna in 1868.
		In 1865 Loschmidt first calculated the Avogadro's number, which in the German language countries is still sometimes referred to as the Loschmidt number.
	www.yourencyclopedia.net /johann_josef_loschmidt.html (181 words)

	Some Notes on Avogadro's Number, 6
		Subsequent to the work of Loschmidt and Perrin many scientists carried out many experiments using a variety of techniques to arrive at the most accurate value for this the number of molecules in one mole of substance.
		The first actual estimate of the number of molecules in one cubic centimetre of a gas under standard conditions was made in 1865 by Loschmidt, and from this the number of molecules (atoms) in a gram molecule (atom) was later evaluated.
		From the quantitative view-point it thus seems preferable to speak of "Loschmidt's number per gram-molecule (atom)," and of "Loschmidt's number per cubic centimetre," as is almost invariably done in the German scientific literature.
	iweb.tntech.edu /chem281-tf/Avogadro.htm (989 words)

	Johann Josef Loschmidt \| životopis
		Johann Josef Loschmidt byl jedním ze zakladatelů atomové fyziky.
		Zabýval se také chemií (Loschmidt bývá často označován jako otec molekulového modelování), elektrodynamikou, mechanickou teorií tepla, optikou a krystalografií.
		V roce 1856 začal Loschmidt učit na střední škole ve Vídni fyziku, chemii, aritmetiku a účetnictví.
	www.converter.cz /fyzici/loschmidt.htm (299 words)

	Johann Josef Loschmidt - netlexikon
		Er forschte auf den Gebieten der Thermodynamik, Elektrodynamik und Optik und über Kristallformen.
		Bücher zum Stichwort "Johann Josef Loschmidt" bei Amazon.de:
		Artikel zum Stichwort "Johann Josef Loschmidt" bei Ebay.de
	www.lexikon-definition.de /Johann-Josef-Loschmidt.html (333 words)

	Johann Loschmidt (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-20)
		Born in Počerny near Carlsbad (today in the Karlovy Vary Region of the Czech Republic), he became professor for physical chemistry at the Universityof Vienna in 1868.
		In 1856 he determined the size of the molecules of air, in 1861 he found thestructure of benzene, before the much more well known discovery by Kekulé.
		In 1865 Loschmidt first calculated the Avogadro's number, which in the German language countries is still sometimes referred to as theLoschmidt number.
	www.therfcc.org /johann-loschmidt-182824.html (132 words)

	No. 1858: Johann Josef Loschmidt
		Loschmidt realized he could deduce the size of molecules from two kinds of information.
		Loschmidt was clearly more interested in science as a process than as a way to become famous.
		A. Bader and L. Parker, Joseph Loschmidt, Physicist and Chemist.
	www.uh.edu /engines/epi1858.htm (531 words)

	Time [Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy] (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-20)
		Although his actual proof was shown to depend on some probability theory and not merely on Newton's laws of motion, his treatment of entropy as being basically a statistical concept was broadly accepted, as was his claim that time's arrow is to be explained in terms of entropy increase.
		Loschmidt pointed out that Boltzmann's statistical mechanics predicts for any point in time that not only should entropy be higher in the future but also it should be higher in the past.
		Loschmidt and Einstein suggested that the low entropy in the past must be explained by what the initial conditions happened to be like at the beginning of the universe.
	www.iep.utm.edu /t/time.htm (15340 words)

	LOSCHMIDT'S NUMBER (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-20)
		LOSCHMIDT's number, N, is defined as the number of atoms in a gram-atom or the number of molecules in a gram-molecule.
		Loschmidt's method was based on the kinetic theory of gases, which had been developed with great success largely by the efforts of his contemporaries, Maxwell and Clausius.
		It seems probable that the most exact value of Loschmidt's number is to be obtained by some method which does not depend on the measurement of a fluctuating quantity, the individual values of which are distributed purely by chance.
	gemini.tntech.edu /~tfurtsch/scihist/loschmid.html (4477 words)

	Scientific American: How was Avogadro's number determined?
		Avogadro is most famous for his hypothesis that equal volumes of different gases at the same temperature and pressure contain the same number of particles.
		The first person to estimate the actual number of particles in a given amount of a substance was Josef Loschmidt, an Austrian high school teacher who later became a professor at the University of Vienna.
		In 1865 Loschmidt used kinetic molecular theory to estimate the number of particles in one cubic centimeter of gas at standard conditions.
	www.sciam.com /print_version.cfm?articleID=0001E5EE-E606-102B-A60683414B7F012D (444 words)

	Joseph Loschmidt: Structural formulae, 1861.
		Loschmidt anticipates cyclic character for a diverse range of molecules, most of which have been subsequently discovered.
		This is where Loschmidt introduces the phenyl group, starting with 181, which shows alternating C=C and C-C allene structure, whih he discounts, following on with the layered sausage formula, which he also discounts, and ending with 185, which is meant to represent the uncertainty in the structure.
		Henry Rzepa is the 1996 recipient of the Joseph Loschmidit Prize for physical organic chemistry, awarded by the Royal Society of Chemistry.
	www.ch.ic.ac.uk /rzepa/loschmidt (397 words)

	Loschmidt-Symposium: zprava ucastnika
		Badera mela titul: "Loschmidts graphische Formeln von 1861: Vorlaufer der modernen Strukturformeln".
		Loschmidt sam mel smulu, ze byl zakem velmi druhoradeho ucitele.
		Ceska ucast na Loschmidtove videnskem sympoziu nebyla takova, jak by odpovidalo skutecnosti, ze Loschmidt byl vlastne nasim krajanem.
	www.uochb.cas.cz /Bulletin/bulletin264/symp.html (1025 words)

	Boltzmann's Work in Statistical Physics
		Loschmidt was Boltzmann's former teacher and later colleague at the University of Vienna, and a life-long friend.
		By the way, one should be careful about the claim that in a system in which the so-called stationary state has been achieved, starting from an arbitrary initial state, this average state can remain intact for all times.
		In his immediate response to Loschmidt he acknowledges that certain initial states of the gas would lead to an increase of the H function, and hence a violation of the H theorem.
	setis.library.usyd.edu.au /stanford/entries/statphys-Boltzmann (13000 words)

	Physics Today March 2001
		Molecular structural formulae, a few of the many appearing for the first time in Loschmidt's 1861 booklet,
		Among its innovations are the depictions of double and triple carbon bonds for ethylene and acetylene; the structure of acetic acid; a correct prediction for cyclopropane 21 years before it was made; and the structures of benzoic acid and aniline, two aromatic molecules with benzene-like rings.
		Loschmidt's role in the later discovery that benzene itself is a monocyclic six-carbon structure is still being debated by historians.
	www.physicstoday.org /pt/vol-54/iss-3/captions/p45cap4.html (83 words)

	Johann Josef Loschmidt Physiker Leben Tschechien Elektrodynamik Loschmidt im Österreich Lexikon physikalische Chemie ... (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-20)
		Juli - Johann Josef Loschmidt, österreichischer Physiker und Chemiker (* 1821) 14.
		Marschner, Erhard: Bibliographie Erlbeck, Gustav: Ahnenliste des Johann Josef Loschmied (Loschmidt), Physiker, seit 1868 Prof.
		Größe der Luftmoleküle, Loschmidt-Zahl Josef Loschmidt 1865 Einführung des Begriffs "Entropie" Rudolf...
	www.powerwissen.com /BEqQI1vUcjrzpARBbPqb2Q%3D%3D_Johann_Josef_Loschmidt.html (349 words)

	C&EN: BOOKS - CHEMISTRY'S QUIXOTIC BEGINNINGS
		Although Loschmidt's 1861 diagram for aniline suggests a six-carbon benzene ring, Buckingham doesn't make it clear that Loschmidt's large circle merely represented a six-carbon cluster whose internal arrangement Loschmidt said he didn't know.
		Loschmidt's circular form is as likely as a reverie in front of a fireplace to have suggested to Kekulé; a six-member carbon ring for benzene.
		Of course, the Loschmidt diagram might have resurfaced in Kekulé's subconscious while dozing.
	pubs.acs.org /cen/books/8251/8251books1.html (1690 words)

	Avogadro's Number (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-20)
		Slightly later, Kelvin obtained an estimate of the number of molecules in a gas from the scattering of light, and his data would give a value of 5 x 10
		Consideration of Brownian motion led to some of the more accurate determinations of Loschmidt's number around the beginning of the 1900's.
		Perrin (1908) is the first person to have used the term Avogadro's number for the number of particles in a mole.
	www.carlton.paschools.pa.sk.ca /chemical/molemass/avogadno.htm (339 words)

	Proceedings of the Josef Loschmidt Symposium 1995
		Loschmidt and Venn: Symbolic Logic in Chemistry and Mathematics (p.
		Loschmidt's Achievements and Shortcomings in Elucidating the Structure of Organic Molecules (p.
		The Precise Deterrnination of Loschmidt's Number (Avogadro Constant) as a Step towards a Redefinition of the SI Unit of Mass* (p.
	merian.pch.univie.ac.at /pch/loschm2.html (382 words)

	Encyclopedia: Friedrich August KekulÃ© von Stradonitz (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-20)
		Kekulé; claimed to solve the problem of how carbon atoms could bond to up to four other atoms at the same time.
		Archibald Scott Couper (1831-1892); further, the German Chemist Johann Josef Loschmidt (March 15, 1821 - July 8, 1895) was an Austrian physicist and chemist.
		Josef Loschmidt (1821-1895) had earlier posited a cyclic structure for benzene as early as 1862, although he had not actually proved this structure to be correct.
	www.nationmaster.com /encyclopedia/Friedrich-August-Kekul%E9-von-Stradonitz (1314 words)

	Loschmidt number definition - Dictionary - MSN Encarta
		Loschmidt number definition - Dictionary - MSN Encarta
		Search for "Loschmidt number" in all of MSN Encarta
		More parents uproot lives to pursue perfect education
	encarta.msn.com /dictionary_561531999_561511064/prevpage.html (85 words)

	Atomic Theory
		Thus, atoms determine the composition of matter, and compounds can be broken down into their individual elements.
		The first estimates for the sizes of atoms and the number of atoms per unit volume where made by Joesph Loschmidt in 1865.
		Using the ideas of kinetic theory, the idea that the properties of a gas are due to the motion of the atoms that compose it, Loschmidt calculated the mean free path of an atom based on diffusion rates.
	zebu.uoregon.edu /~js/21st_century_science/lectures/lec05.html (2672 words)

	Johann_Josef_Loschmidt (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-20)
		Im Alter von 66 Jahren heiratete Loschmidt, und zwar seine Haushälterin.
		Kurze Zeit darauf wurde Loschmidts einziges Kind geboren, das allerdings noch im Kindesalter verstarb.
		Todestages von Josef Loschmidt eine Sonderpostmarke mit Nennwert ATS 20.- heraus.
	bodo.subdomain.de /Johann_Josef_Loschmidt (338 words)

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