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Topic: Lunar craters

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	Lunar Impact Crater Geology and Structure
		Bessel Crater, 16 kilometers in diameter and 2 kilometers deep, is an example of a transitional crater between simple and complex craters.
		The terraces and slump blocks on the inside of the crater rim and the relatively flat floor are both typical of large lunar craters.
		Copernicus Crater, 93 kilometers in diameter, is one of the youngest and freshest impact craters on the nearside of the Moon.
	www.lpi.usra.edu /expmoon/science/craterstructure.html (1154 words)

	Artemis Project: Introduction to Lunar Craters
		Ring mountains are summetrical craters that have a diameter of 20 to 100 km and have close quarters, terraced inner slopes and circular walls with well defined summits.
		Craters with flooded floors that are 5 to 200 km wide are flooded by lava because of the craters original formation or by a volcano forming inside of a crater and flooding this crater with lava.
		Finally, the smallest craters that can be seen from earth are called crater pits or craterlets, for their small size, 5 km or less, have the same description as craters.
	www.asi.org /adb/m/04/01/crater-notes.html (262 words)

	Lunar Craters—a Failed Theory
		The crater is some 85 kilometers in diameter, displaying enigmatic “rays” that extend at least a quarter of the way around the moon.
		In the electrical cratering experiments by plasma physicist CJ Ransom, (as seen here) central peaks were often the norm.
		As long ago as 1965, attention was drawn to the similar incidence of craters with central peaks in lunar craters and laboratory spark-machined craters.
	www.thunderbolts.info /tpod/2006/arch06/060308crater.htm (1386 words)

	A biblically-based cratering theory
		The amount of cratering on a surface is usually understood as being related to the age of the surface.
		Obviously ghost craters are from impacts that occurred between the formation of the impact basins and the volcanic overflow.
		When this cratering rate is applied to the number of ghost craters on the lunar maria, it is found that the volcanic overflow post-dated the impact basins by as much as 500 Ma (million years).
	www.answersingenesis.org /tj/v13/i1/crater.asp (3397 words)

	Moon Society: Geologic Processes on the Moon
		Thus medium sized craters that have a sharp rim, rim deposits, terracing, a central peak, a continuous and discontinuous ejecta and a bright ray pattern are the youngest.
		Medium sized craters that have lost their continuous ejecta and their 'sharp' rim are from the next period, called the 'Nectarian Period.' This period extends from 3.85 to 3.92 billion years of age.
		Lunar Consoladated Atlas - clickable thumbnails of each section of the Moon's nearside hemisphere - be patient while the thumbnails load, then browse and open any that catch your interest for a larger view (c.
	www.moonsociety.org /certificate/lunargeology.html (4843 words)

	Remote Sensing Tutorial Page 18-1
		The Tycho crater is the classic exemplar of a large impact structure, with these hallmarks: circular raised rim; concentric nest of slumped walls inside this rim; central (uplift) peak; rough, irregular crater floor (here a mix of fragmental ejecta and lava extrusion); and exterior ejecta in hummocky deposits.
		Cratering on their surfaces was most intense from the last stages of planetary growth, very early in solar system time (beginning about 4.6 billion years ago), through a later period of about one billion years, after which, the flux of objects striking those surfaces dropped off notably.
		With the return of the first lunar samples from Apollo 11, shock effects in moon rocks were observed, supporting the conclusion that the bulk of lunar craters are the result of impact.
	rst.gsfc.nasa.gov /Sect18/Sect18_1.html (2572 words)

	Introduction to Cratering Studies
		This line appears to mark approximate saturation equilibrium of craters on the surface; that is, if you added a new crater at this crater density, the new one would obliterate older craters and on average the line would stay about the same.
		Large-diameter craters were counted over a large region; smaller diameter craters were counted in a sampling of smaller regions and averaged to characterize the area.
		The main point is that in this young area, the crater populations (at least at larger diameters above D = 2 km) are a very good match to the general shape, or slope of the size distribution of the lunar lava plains.
	www.psi.edu /projects/mgs/cratering.html (1483 words)

	PSRD: Moon's Dark, Icy Poles
		Simulations were run for craters ranging in diameter from 2.5 km to 20.0 km, in 2.5 km increments, in order to see how the amount of permanent shadow varies with crater size.
		Lunar ice mixed in the regolith of polar cold traps would be an important resource for people living and working on the Moon.
		Ongoing studies are looking at the feasibility and economics of melting lunar ice for use by habitants or converting lunar ice into hydrogen and oxygen for rocket fuel [see, for example, the abstracts and papers from Space Resources Roundtable workshops].
	www.psrd.hawaii.edu /June03/lunarShadows.html (1548 words)

	Teacher Page: Impact Craters
		The factors affecting the appearance of impact craters and ejecta are the size and velocity of the impactor, and the geology of the target surface.
		Famous impact craters on Earth are Meteor Crater in Arizona, U.S.A.; Manicouagan in Quebec, Canada; Sudbury in Ontario, Canada; Ries Crater in Germany, and Chicxulub on the Yucatan coast in Mexico.
		Chicxulub is considered by most scientists as the source crater of the catastrophe that led to the extinction of the dinosaurs at the end of the Cretaceous period.
	www.reachoutmichigan.org /funexperiments/quick/hawaii/Craters.html (1201 words)

	Surface Properties of the Moon
		The amount of cratering is usually an indication of the age of a geological surface: the more craters, the older the surface, because if the surface is young there hasn't been time for many craters to form.
		Further, different parts of the surface of the Moon exhibit different amounts of cratering and therefore are of different ages: the maria are younger than the highlands, because they have fewer craters.
		The Anorthosites that are common in the Lunar Highlands are not common on the surface of the Earth (The Adirondack Mountains and the Canadian Shield are exceptions).
	csep10.phys.utk.edu /astr161/lect/moon/moon_surface.html (1083 words)

	APOD: 2001 August 9 - Tycho and Copernicus: Lunar Ray Craters
		During partial lunar phases, the craters along the terminator are cast in dramatic relief by strong shadows.
		craters are relatively young as their rays overlay the lunar terrain.
		Crater Copernicus, surrounded by dark mare which contrast nicely with its bright rays, is 93 kilometers in diameter.
	antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov /apod/ap010809.html (169 words)

	Lunar Orbiter: Impact Crater Geology (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-10)
		Impact craters are produced by the collision of a meteorite or comet with the surface of the Moon, which ejects material and leaves behind a crater.
		The crater Tycho, 85 kilometers in diameter, is the youngest large impact crater on the Moon's nearside.
		Tycho is in the lunar highlands, and the terrain surrounding the crater is quite rugged.
	www.lpi.usra.edu /expmoon/orbiter/orbiter-craters.html (648 words)

	Calculating the depth and diameter of lunar craters
		This project (measuring the diameter and depth of craters on the lunar surface) will show a method to calculate the sizes and height of features on the lunar surface using a photographic technique and how to acquire, process, measure, and calculate these features.
		This enabled determination of the distance and the angle of the sun on the lunar surface.
		· Diameter of Crater Theophilus = 109.429 km
	maguires.com /astronomy/lunar_craters2.htm (1155 words)

	Lunar Gene Banks
		Lunar sites are not subject to earthquakes, hurricanes and other disasters.
		Initially, the packaged material can be dropped at the lunar crater sites from lunar orbit, even without manned landings.
		Michael N. Mautner served on the faculty of Rockefeller University, at the National Institute of Standards and Technology, and is currently Research Professor of Chemistry at Virginia Commonwealth University.
	www.lunargenebank.com (692 words)

	Lunar Images (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-10)
		The small craters inside of Clavius are suitable for testing the resolution of smaller telescopes, as each one is progressively smaller.
		The small crater at the southern termination of the rile is about 3.1km wide and 470m deep.
		The area at the left of the image is the area that JPL crash landed the Lunar Orbiter into in an attempt to ascertain if water was present in one of the South Pole craters.
	www.astroimaging.com /Lunarsmall.htm (1149 words)

	SPA Lunar Section
		Lunar observation is by far the most visually rewarding branch of astronomy.
		Most lunar observers regard the telescope eyepiece as if it were the porthole of their very own Apollo command module.
		The privilege of just seeing is satisfying enough, yet ever since Galileo sketched the lunar craters nearly four hundred years ago, many observers have striven to keep some kind of permanent record of their forays around the Moon's surface.
	website.lineone.net /~petergrego/spalunar.htm (1299 words)

	Apollo Lunar Module - Moon Craters
		To determine the factors affecting the physical features of the moon and that the craters on the Moon are impact craters.
		The higher the drop height, the greater the velocity of the objects so a larger crater should be made and the ejecta will spread out farther.
		(Chicxulub is considered by most scientists as the source crater of the catastrophe that may have led to the extinction of the dinosuars at the end of the Cretaceous period.
	sln.fi.edu /pieces/schutte/currcrater.html (645 words)

	Hands-On Activities (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-10)
		These distinctive terrains are the bright lunar highlands (also known as the lunar terrae, which is Latin for land) and the darker plains called the lunar maria, Latin for seas, which they resembled to Thomas Hariot and Galileo Galilei, the first scientists to examine the Moon with telescopes.
		The bottom of the crater is lower than the original ground surface, the piled up material on the rim is higher.
		The maria cover 16% of the lunar surface and are composed of lava flows that filled relatively low places, mostly inside immense impact basins.
	lunar.arc.nasa.gov /education/teacher/teacher1.htm (1272 words)

	Lunar Republic Society · Official Website Of The Moon (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-10)
		The organizers of the Kennedy II Lunar Exploration Project have announced that they will accept financial support from the Lunar Republic Society and its partners as part of a $3.5-billion effort toward a commercial mission to build settlements on the Moon.
		The most comprehensive Lunar atlas ever released online to the public is now available to everyone.
		Lunar Republic, S.A. Contents copyright © 1999-2006 by the Lunar Republic Society.
	www.lunarrepublic.com (542 words)

	Selenography - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		His work is considered the first true map of the Moon, as it portrayed the various lunar mare, craters, and mountain peaks and ranges.
		The modern scheme of lunar nomenclature was devised by Giambattista Riccioli, a Jesuit priest and scholar who lived in northern Italy.
		Riccioli's naming scheme was formally established as the doctrinal lunar nomenclature by a vote of the IAU in 1935, which gave standard names to 600 lunar features.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Origin_of_lunar_nomenclature (2260 words)

	Exploring The Planets - VENUS - (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-10)
		The dark terrain around these craters is covered by a layer of fine material pulverized by the meteorite impact.
		Because of this, craters on Venus lack the long "rays" of material and chains of secondary craters found around many lunar craters.
		But young craters, such as this one, are surrounded by parabola-shaped deposits of fine soil that was ejected and carried to the west (left) by winds high in the atmosphere.
	www.nasm.si.edu /ceps/etp/venus/craters.html (202 words)

	Lunar Craters—a Failed Theory (2)
		Of the larger formations on the Moon, this rayed crater is considered the brightest.
		Additionally, the close-up images of the crater (as in our picture above) show that many if not all the “rays” are not deposits of ejecta but depressed channels, as if material has been removed from the bright paths by the very event that produced the crater.
		In the cited experiments Ford used a spark-machining apparatus to reproduce in miniature some of the most puzzling lunar features, including craters with central peaks, small craters preferentially perched on the high rims of larger craters, and craters strung out in long chains.
	www.thunderbolts.info /tpod/2006/arch06/060310crater.htm (1092 words)

	Planetary and lunar craters not what they seem - Space.com - MSNBC.com
		Most of the craters on Jupiter's moon Europa are formed by chunks of rock and ice splashing back down onto the moon's surface after a meteor strike, a new study suggests.
		It was previously thought that most of the craters seen on moons and planets were the work of direct, or "primary" impacts from asteroids and comets.
		After running the simulations hundreds of times and comparing the results to the images, they found that the crater distributions were not similar as would be expected if most of the craters were caused by primary impacts.
	www.msnbc.msn.com /id/9757978 (790 words)

	Is the Solar System's Cratering Really Meteoritic? (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-10)
		If the lunar craters are studied in detail it is possible to observe that many have a pronounced polygonal shaping to them.
		The only really earthly equivalent of a lunar crater is perhaps the caldera crater which is basically a volcano which has exploded.
		As bowl shaped hollows in the lunar dust (or regolith), it again would not be possible to explain their origin from geological processes and one wonders whether the meteoritic craters in their new form would actually look like this either.
	www.webspawner.com /users/craters (1407 words)

	Height of Lunar Mountains
		The purpose of this project is to estimate the height of lunar mountains based on the lengths of the shadows they cast.
		To check your conversion from pixel to distance on the lunar surface is correct, pick several craters in the image with sharp, well-defined rims or walls.
		As a check, use this same factor to correct the measured diameters of craters in your image; compare to the known diameters of the craters.
	www.physast.uga.edu /~jss/1120L/LunarMount.html (925 words)

	Craters in a Sandbox
		Still, geophysicists have developed a rule of thumb that both crater diameter and depth increase with impact energy according to a formula where energy is raised to the 1/4 power.
		The team also showed that their crater structures were very similar to lunar craters.
		Their crater diameters followed the "energy to the 1/4 power" rule of thumb, but the depth didn't depend on energy in a simple way.
	focus.aps.org /story/v12/st8 (773 words)

	Lunar Cataclysm Page 1
		Analyses of lunar samples collected by Apollo astronauts revealed a surprising feature: the crust of the Moon seems to have been severely heated ~3.9 billion years ago, metamorphosing the rocks in it.
		Observations of impact craters on the Moon indicate that >1,700 impact craters with diameters >20 km were produced during the cataclysm.
		That is, impact craters the size of continents were being produced on the Earth.
	www.lpl.arizona.edu /SIC/impact_cratering/lunar_cataclysm (1068 words)

	Astronomy 350 - Craters of the Moon Lab
		This lab is based on an unfiltered CCD image of craters near the center of the first-quarter moon that were acquired with a SpectraSource Instruments Teleris CCD camera on the old 12-inch Tinsley telescope that used to reside in the dome on the roof of Smith Lab.
		This gives a great table of the selenographic (lunar) latitudes and longitudes for all craters, as well as the diameter of the craters in kilometers, and other information that might be relevant or interesting.
		The height of the crater is h, the apparent length of the shadow is s, and the altitude of the sun as seen from the end of the shadow is the angle a.
	www-astronomy.mps.ohio-state.edu /~pogge/Ast350/Labs/craters02.html (2539 words)

	List of craters on the Moon - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		The crater nomenclature is governed by the International Astronomical Union, and this listing only includes features that are officially recognized by that body.
		Where a formation has associated satellite craters, these are detailed on the main crater description pages.
		Lunar Atlases at the Lunar and Planetary Institute
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/List_of_Lunar_craters (314 words)

	LPOD lunar photo of the day » DIFFERENT POPULATIONS OF LUNAR CRATERS
		This is evidence that the rate of impact cratering was very high early in lunar history and had declined tremendously by the time of maria emplacement about 3.5 to 3.0 billion years ago.
		Bob Strom and colleagues at the Lunar and Planetary Lab in Tucson have counted the number of craters of differing sizes that are old appearing (red line – lunar highlands) and that are youthful (blue – lunar class 1 craters).
		This means that the ancient cratering of the Moon was produced by material of all sizes from the main asteroid belt.
	www.lpod.org /?p=96 (416 words)

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