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Topic: Models of our universe

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Klendathu

Denver Township, Newaygo County, Michigan

	Cosmology and Topology
		In the so-called " crumpled " universe models, the sky is the arena of a gigantic optical illusion, due a topological lens effect.
		The universe does not have a structure of immutable Euclidean space woven by an independent time; it is described as a space-time distorted by the presence of matter and energy.
		The Einstein model thus had to be abandoned because it described a static universe, and replaced by dynamical universe models, independently discovered by the Russian Alexandre Friedmann and the Belgian George Lemaître.
	luth2.obspm.fr /%7Eluminet/etopo.html (3625 words)

	[No title]
		It does not alter the fact that your model must be at peace with the thought of nude modelling as a whole, but a sensitive relationship with the photographer will work wonders here.
		Your first session will create the tone for future work, but that is when a model will be her most nervous, a way of getting over this barrier might be to ask her to come accompanied, and that may make for a lighter more relaxed session.
		As the model becomes more familiar with how you work and experiences the crucial processes of making an image, the model becomes better at generating poses which work for you, and on the whole, the number of successful images increases.
	nude-model-photography.50webs.com (908 words)

	cosmology
		It was not until the 16th century that Nicolaus Copernicus developed a model for the universe in which the sun was at the center instead of the earth.
		Nonstatic models of the universe were developed in 1917 by the Dutch astronomer Willem de Sitter, in 1922 by the Russian mathematician Alexander Friedmann, and in 1927 by the Belgian abbé, Georges Lemaître.
		Gamow proposed that the universe was created in a gigantic explosion and that the various elements observed today were produced within the first few minutes after the big bang, when the extremely high temperature and density of the universe would fuse subatomic particles into the chemical elements.
	www.geocities.com /SiliconValley/Circuit/7615/cosmology.html (2212 words)

	Static and Expanding Models of the Universe (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-03)
		As most scientists assumed the Universe is static, Einstein postulated the existence of a force of repulsion between galaxies that counterbalanced the gravitational force of attraction.
		Non-static models of the universe were developed in 1917 by the Dutch astronomer Willem de Sitter, in 1922 by the Russian mathematician Alexander Friedmann, and in 1927 by the Belgian abbé, Georges Lemaître.
		The fate of the Friedmann universe is determined by the average density of matter in the universe.
	www.schoolsobservatory.org.uk /study/sci/cosmo/internal/models.htm (508 words)

	Nat' Academies Press, Cosmology: A Research Briefing (1995)
		In short, astronomerscan “weigh the universe” and measure the elusive parameter Ω the ratio of the mean mass density to that required to closethe universe and eventually stop its expansion.
		With improved modeling of the evolution of galaxiesand a major effort to obtain spectra of a large sample of faint galaxies,this test might prove to be an effective way to measure both q0 and Λ.
		Cosmological models with different values of q0 and Λ predict different volumes of space for a given observed redshift,and the number of galaxies is a measure of the size of that volume.This volume evolution affects not only the number of quasars, supernovae,or galaxies at any redshift, but also the number of potential gravitationallenses (discussed below).
	books.nap.edu /books/NX005722/html/19.html (3969 words)

	Creation of a Cosmology: Big Bang Theory (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-03)
		According to the prevailing cosmological models that explain our universe, an ineffable explosion, trillions of degrees in temperature on any measurement scale, that was infinitely dense, created not only fundamental subatomic particles and thus matter and energy but space and time itself.
		The observational proof that the universe was expanding, combined with the models of Friedmann and Lemaître that predicted an expanding universe unified the cosmologist and the astronomer in agreement.
		Based on the assumption that the expansion of the universe was an increase in the disorder of a system, originating from a singularity of neutrons, this primordial nucleus would then explode where an increase in the entropy of the universe would be apparent.
	ssscott.tripod.com /BigBang.html (3973 words)

	[No title] (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-03)
		The universe began as a sphere of fire enclosing a cold, moist mass seperated by a layer of mist.
		The drum shaped Earth stays static in the universe due to their being no reason for it to go in any 1 direction therefore it stays where is it.
		In 275 BCE Aristarchus of Samos argued for a heliocentric universe and also asserted that the sun was a larger body than the Earth and was severely censured for impiety.
	www.angelfire.com /id/oniero/universe.html (1092 words)

	Universal Truths: Distant quasars reveal content, age of universe: Science News Online, July 31, 2004
		Using 3,000 recently discovered quasars as searchlights on the distant universe, astronomers have mapped with unprecedented precision the distribution of the diffuse gas between galaxies.
		Inflation posits that the infant universe underwent a brief but enormous growth spurt that locked in and magnified subatomic fluctuations to astronomical-sized wrinkles.
		Studying the spectra of quasars to reveal the distribution of either gas or galaxies in the universe isn't a new endeavor.
	www.sciencenews.org /articles/20040731/fob5.asp (700 words)

	Models of the Universe (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-03)
		The universe was initially a tiny entity, which immediately began to expand, and which has been expanding ever since.
		Models of the Universe from Aristotle to Newton
		It covers: the Big Bang; the formation of matter and anti-matter; the interaction of matter and energy in the early Universe; the structure detected by the COBE satellite; the formation of galaxies in general; and the formation of our Galaxy.
	www.atnf.csiro.au /educate/teachers/Universe.html (1290 words)

	Edge: THE ULTRA EARLY UNIVERSE
		Back at the very beginning the entire universe could have been squeezed to the size of an elementary particle—quantum fluctuations could shake the entire universe, and there would be an essential link between cosmology and the micro-world.
		What astronomers call our universe, the part we can observe within the horizon of our telescopes, is just a tiny fraction of everything there is, and could be an atypical part.
		Physical laws prevent us from exercising our free will to walk on the ceiling; likewise there may be a physical law preventing you, if you were in a time loop, from doing something that was inconsistent, like shooting your grandfather in his cradle.
	www.edge.org /3rd_culture/rees02/rees02_print.html (4313 words)

	Frequently Asked Questions in Cosmology
		If the expansion of the Universe is accelerating due to a cosmological constant, then the expansion was slower in the past, and thus the time required to expand by a given factor is longer, and the distance NOW is larger.
		The age of the Universe is determined from its expansion rate: the Hubble constant, which is the ratio of the radial velocity of a distant galaxy to its distance.
		The vast majority of the entropy of the Universe is in the cosmic microwave background radiation because the vast majority of particles in the Universe are the photons of the CMB.
	www.astro.ucla.edu /~wright/cosmology_faq.html (4741 words)

	Astronomy Lecture Number 3 (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-03)
		The starting point for the Ptolemaic model is the common sense idea that the Earth is flat and immobile, and that all of the celestial bodies (the Sun, Moon, planets, stars) move around the Earth.
		With these enhancements, the model could predict the future positions of the planets to within a degree or so, which was pretty good at the time.
		His version of the model did not look so different from Ptolemy's, but there was one major difference--the Earth was no longer an immovable object at the center of the Universe.
	physics.njit.edu /~dgary/202/Lecture3.html (1738 words)

	Big Bang Cosmology Primer
		Our understanding of the Universe has greatly increased over the past few decades.
		The current model of how the Universe formed is known as the Big Bang theory.
		The oscillatory Universe model claims that the Universe started with a big bang, and that it is currently expanding.
	cosmology.berkeley.edu /Education/IUP/Big_Bang_Primer.html (1809 words)

	Universe Today - Space Simulator Models the Universe
		It's been used to simulate the structure and evolution of the Universe, supernovae explosions, and X-ray emission from the centre of the galaxy.
		For the past several years, a team of University of California astrophysicists working at Los Alamos National Laboratory have been using a cluster of roughly 300 computer processors to model some of the most intriguing aspects of the Universe.
		In addition to simulating the structure and evolution of the Universe, the Space Simulator has been used to study the explosions of massive stars and to help understand the X-ray emission from the center of our galaxy.
	www.universetoday.com /am/publish/space_simulator_models_universe.html (895 words)

	NASA - Top Story: Giant Galaxy String Defies Models of how Universe Evolved
		This is a plot of the remote galaxies and other celestial objects that indicate an extremely large structure exists 10.8 billion light-years away in the direction of the southern constellation Grus (the Crane).
		Wide-field telescope observations of the remote and therefore early Universe, looking back to a time when it was a fifth of its present age (redshift = 2.38), have revealed an enormous string of galaxies about 300 million light-years long.
		In recent years, Francis explained, it had been found that in the local Universe, dark matter is distributed on large scales in very much the same way the galaxies are, rather than being more clumpy, or less.
	www.gsfc.nasa.gov /topstory/2004/0107filament.html (1114 words)

	Astronomy (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-03)
		The elliptical, or closed, universal model (a) has a beginning, an end, and a finite lifetime.
		In contrast to the open Universe that ends as a frozen cinder, this closed Universe will experience a "heat death." Its contents are destined to fry.
		Should the oscillating model be valid, we need not trouble ourselves with the concept of "existence" before the beginning of time.
	sloscience.hypermart.net /Astronomy/origin%20theories.htm (691 words)

	Spaceflight Now \| Breaking News \| Missing mass exists as warm intergalactic fog
		Numerous lines of evidence show that the Universe is about 73 percent "dark energy," 23 percent "dark matter," and only 4 percent normal matter.
		"Our research shows that this warm fog may hold as much as two-thirds of the normal matter within the neighborhood of the Milky Way," says Nicastro.
		Theories indicate that the early Universe was filled with a nearly homogeneous mix of hydrogen and helium gas.
	spaceflightnow.com /news/n0302/23fog (1004 words)

	Models of the Universe (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-03)
		According to the big bang, the universe was created sometime between 10 billion and 20 billion years ago from a cosmic explosion that hurled matter and in all directions.
		The 5-planes and 7-planes models are based on the Universe being a number of separate planes, on which life or intelligence exists.
		Relating this back to physical models, we do indeed live in a world of three dimensions, and the fourth dimension we recognise is time (see my notes above about how our conventional views of reality break down with the theories of relativity, which are based on a curved space-time continuum).
	www.inthelight.co.nz /spirit/pg-univ.htm (1707 words)

	Ptolemy (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-03)
		However, while early models of the universe may be wrong, many were scientifically sound given the facts that were known at the time.
		This model places the Earth at the center of the Universe, and the heavens are composed of eight concentric spheres that independently (at slightly different speeds) rotate around the Earth.
		The Ptolemaic Model gave fairly accurate predictions of planetary motion, and it was later accepted by the Church, and thus was THE Model of the Universe for more than a thousand years.
	www.cas.muohio.edu /~marcumsd/p111/lectures/ptolemy.htm (762 words)

	Shape of the universe biography .ms (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-03)
		The term shape of the universe can most usefully refer either to the geometry (curvature and topology) of a comoving spatial section of the universe (a loose term for this is the shape of space) or more generally, to the shape of the whole of space-time.
		To understand concepts of the shape of the universe, according to the standard big bang model, the reader should, ideally, first develop his/her intuition of manifolds, and more specifically, of Riemannian manifolds.
		Comoving coordinates are necessary for thinking about the shape of the Universe.
	www.biography.ms /Models_of_our_universe.html (780 words)

	The Largest Ever Model Of The Universe Created
		By applying sophisticated modelling techniques to the 25 Terabytes (25 million Megabytes) of stored output, Virgo scientists are able to recreate evolutionary histories for the approximately 20 million galaxies which populate this enormous volume and for the supermassive fl holes occasionally seen as quasars at their hearts.
		It is this growth which the Millennium Simulation is designed to follow, with the twin goals of checking that this new paradigm for cosmic evolution is indeed consistent with what we see, and of exploring the complex physics which gave rise to galaxies and their central fl holes.
		"Our ability to predict the consequences of our theories must reach a matching level of precision if we are to use these surveys effectively to learn about the origin and nature of our world.
	www.spacedaily.com /news/cosmology-05v.html (1121 words)

	Mirror, mirror up above.
		Now if we turn to the universe as a whole—by which we mean huge scales of over 1025 metres—it appears that the virtually uniform distribution of galaxies throughout the cosmos must curve space in a likewise uniform fashion.
		Aside from this constant curvature, the universe should also have an underlying dynamic: in other words, it can either be expanding or contracting.
		But the data also indicates that the universe is expanding at an increasing rate, suggesting that some kind of “cosmological constant” is accelerating the expansion rate.
	www.unesco.org /courier/2001_05/uk/doss14.htm (1254 words)

	Faulkes Telescope Educational Guide - Universe
		Until the early 1500s, it was thought that the Earth was the centre of the Universe.
		He used them to observe our Moon, the planets, the moons of Jupiter and stars in our galaxy.
		His observations confirmed Copernicus’ view of the Universe, which he publicly supported in his book “Discourses and Mathematical Demonstrations on Two New Sciences.” Following its publication in 1632, he was tried for heresy by the Catholic church and confined to house arrest for the rest of his life.
	www.le.ac.uk /ph/faulkes/web/universe/r_un_models.html (377 words)

	Forest Models of the Universe
		Clockwise: Janis Bowley and Oliver Kellhammer, "Forest Models of the Universe", 1988, six blueprints, "The Choice of the new Generation?", 1988, mixed-media including oil on canvas, irrigation system and maple seedlings.
		Through these individual and collective explorations, Bowley and Kellhammer strive to enhance the relationship between our frequently antagonistic urban culture and the unigue ecological foundation on which it is based.
		Through their models, they want to force viewers to become more aware of the fragility of the environment as well as of how dependent it has become on technological systems imposed by man.
	www.mercerunion.org /archive95/261.html (1402 words)

	Top Ten Problems with the Big Bang
		The universe has too much large scale structure (interspersed "walls" and voids) to form in a time as short as 10-20 billion years.
		The average luminosity of quasars must decrease with time in just the right way so that their mean apparent brightness is the same at all redshifts, which is exceedingly unlikely.
		The local streaming motions of galaxies are too high for a finite universe that is supposed to be everywhere uniform.
	www.metaresearch.org /cosmology/top10BBproblems.asp (279 words)

	BBC News \| SCI/TECH \| Universe 'proven flat'
		Another result of the study is the prediction that the Universe will continue its steady expansion, which started at the Big Bang, and will not collapse into a "Big Crunch".
		The research backs the inflation theory of the Universe put forward in 1980, which suggests that the whole of the cosmos expanded from a single tiny point at the Big Bang.
		However, the Universe's expansion has been so great that space has now been stretched to the point that it is essentially flat.
	news.bbc.co.uk /hi/english/sci/tech/newsid_727000/727073.stm (628 words)

	Cosmic Engine: Early Models of the Universe
		As technology improved they were able to refine and develop their models, moving from myth to scientific investigation of their surroundings.
		The focus will be on the models devloped in antiquity by Greek astronomers and the major developments from the 1500s through to the time of Newton.
		identify data sources, and gather, process and analyse information to assess one of the models of the Universe developed from the time of Aristotle to the time of Newton to identify limitations placed on the development of the model by the technology available at the time.
	outreach.atnf.csiro.au /education/senior/cosmicengine/historytop.html (248 words)

	First Record for the 2003 Space Science Videotapes (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-03)
		Wide-field telescope observations of the remote and therefore early Universe, looking back to a time when it was a fifth of its present age have revealed an enormous string of galaxies about 300 million light-years long.
		This new structure defies current models of how the Universe evolved, which cannot explain how a string this big could have formed so early.
		Scientists said they are seeing the string as it was when the Universe was only a fifth of its present age.
	www.gsfc.nasa.gov /gsfc/newsroom/tv%20page/G03-072_space.html (392 words)

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