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Topic: Molniya orbit

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Molniya

High Earth Orbit

Intermediate circular orbit

Earth orbit

Geostationary orbit

Geosynchronous orbit

Satellite Data System

Polar orbit

Orbit

Low Earth orbit

Geosynchronous satellite

Geostationary transfer orbit

Fractional Orbital Bombardment System

Orbital period

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	Molniya or Highly Elliptical Orbit
		A Molniya orbit, often referred to as a highly elliptical orbit (or HEO) is an egg-shaped orbit inclined approximately 60 degrees to the equator with a high apogee over the northern hemisphere and a low perigee over the southern hemisphere.
		Molniya, which means "lightning" in Russian, was the name of the first Russian communications satellites to use it.
		This type of orbit is suitable for communications services in the high-latitude areas over Russia and is also used by U.S. intelligence satellites that focus on spying on Russia and Russian missile warning satellites that are observing U.S. ICBM silos.
	www.centennialofflight.gov /essay/Dictionary/MOLNIYA/DI166.htm (154 words)

	CalendarHome.com - - Calendar Encyclopedia (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-06)
		First, he found that the orbits of the planets in our solar system are elliptical, not circular (or epicyclic), as had previously been believed, and that the sun is not located at the center of the orbits, but rather at one focus.
		In the case of an open orbit, the speed at any position of the orbit is at least the escape velocity for that position, in the case of a closed orbit, always less.
		The gravity of the orbiting object raises tidal bulges in the primary, and since below the synchronous orbit the orbiting object is moving faster than the body's surface the bulges lag a short angle behind it.
	encyclopedia.calendarhome.com /cgi-bin/encyclopedia.pl?p=Orbit (3170 words)

	The Dispatch - Serving the Lexington, NC - News
		Molniya orbit is a class of a highly elliptic orbit with inclination of 63.4Â° and orbital period of about 12 hours.
		Molniya orbits are named after a series of Soviet/Russian Molniya communications satellites that have been using this class of orbits since the mid 1960s.
		Molniya orbits are not limited to Earth orbits only as they can be computed for any celestial body for which secular variations in longitude of the ascending node and argument of perigee because of central body's oblateness have dominant effects on bodies orbiting it.
	www.the-dispatch.com /apps/pbcs.dll/section?category=NEWS&template=wiki&text=Molniya_orbit (545 words)

	Molniya - Biocrawler (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-06)
		Molniya ("lightning") was a military communications satellite system used by the Soviet Union.
		The satellites used highly eccentric elliptical orbits, which allowed them to be visible to polar regions for long periods (sites near the poles are not able to communicate with satellites in geosynchronous orbits).
		The Molniya bureau was headed by Matus Bisnovat, and it specialized in the development of missiles.
	www.biocrawler.com /encyclopedia/Molniya (262 words)

	Tracking Molniya Satellites - Centre for Space Research of the Royal Military College of Canada
		Molniya orbits are low over the area of the South Pole where radar coverage is poor, and extremely high over the northern latitudes where optical coverage has not been optimized.
		The Molniya orbit is approximately defined by a period of 12 hours, an eccentricity of 0.7 and an inclination of 63.4 degrees.
		Molniyas with intermediate longitudes of perigee have a saw-tooth mean-motion behaviour, due to regular manoeuvres to preserve the phase of their orbits.
	www.rmc.ca /academic/csr/molniya/reports/index_e.html (2992 words)

	Spartanburg SC \| GoUpstate.com \| Spartanburg Herald-Journal
		Molniya orbit is a class of a Highly Elliptical Orbit with inclination of 63.4Â° and orbital period of about 12 hours.
		Molniya orbits are named after a series of Soviet/Russian Molniya communications satellites that have been using this class of orbits since the mid 1960s.
		Molniya orbits are not limited to Earth orbits only as they can be computed for any celestial body for which secular variations in longitude of the ascending node and argument of perigee because of central body's oblateness have dominant effects on bodies orbiting it.
	www.goupstate.com /apps/pbcs.dll/section?category=NEWS&template=wiki&text=Molniya_orbit (544 words)

	Molniya-type orbit
		A very elliptical, 12-hour orbit, with a high apogee in the northern hemisphere and a relatively low perigee in the southern hemisphere.
		Soviet Molniyas were the first to be placed in such paths.
		Since satellites in Molniya-type orbits move very slowly at apogee, they appear to hover for hours at a time over northern latitudes enabling them to relay for long periods in these locations.
	www.daviddarling.info /encyclopedia/M/Molniya-type_orbit.html (199 words)

	CASTOR - Tracking Molniya Satellites - Department of Physics of the Royal Military College of Canada
		The Molniya orbit is characterized by a long orbital period (12 hours), a high eccentricity (0.7) and an inclination of approximately 63.4 degrees.
		Molniyas whose perigees are 90 degrees from Earth's long axis have unstable mean motions, and require periodic manoeuvres, about every 100 days, to keep them over the required ground track (Figure 6).
		Molniyas with intermediate longitudes of perigee have a saw-tooth mean-motion behaviour, due to regular manoeuvres to preserve the orientation and phase of their orbits (Figure 7).
	www.rmc.ca /academic/physics/castor/tracking97_e.html (2745 words)

	CalendarHome.com - - Calendar Encyclopedia (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-06)
		A satellite in a geostationary orbit appears to be in a fixed position to an earth-based observer.
		Low earth orbiting satellites are less expensive to position in space than geostationary satellites and, because of their closer proximity to the ground, require lower signal strength (Recall that signal strength falls off as the square of the distance from the source, so the effect is dramatic).
		The first satellite of Molniya series was launched on April 23, 1965 and was used for experimental transmission of TV signal from Moscow uplink station to downlink stations, located in Siberia and Russian Far East, in Norilsk, Khabarovsk, Magadan and Vladivostok.
	encyclopedia.calendarhome.com /cgi-bin/encyclopedia.pl?p=Communications_satellite (2864 words)

	Orbits - Molniya
		This orbit would have a high orbit inclination (from 60 to 70 degrees or more), a nearly 12-hour orbit, a very high apogee altitude at about 40,000km, and a very low perigee altitude (sometimes as low as 100km).
		Their orbit inclinations are such that the effects of apsidal precession are virtually negligible, thus providing natural orbit preservation in that respect.
		Molniya satellite orbits have been used for European communications partnerships, and at one time was even used for the "Hot Line" between the Soviet Union and the United States.
	www.castor2.ca /14_Orbits/09_Molniya/index.html (352 words)

	Planetary orbit Summary
		The third factor is the inclination of the orbit, or the angle between the plane of the orbit and the plane of Earth's orbit.
		First, he found that the orbits of the planets in our solar system are elliptical, not circular (or epicyclic), as had previously been believed, and that the sun is not located at the center of the orbits, but rather at one focus.
		The gravity of the orbiting object raises tidal bulges in the primary, and since below the synchronous orbit the orbiting object is moving faster than the body's surface the bulges lag a short angle behind it.
	www.bookrags.com /Planetary_orbit (4861 words)

	Orbits
		The orbit chosen for a satellite is a compromise between the mission requirements, the capabilities of the rocket used to launch the satellite and orbital mechanics.
		A geostationary orbit is a special case of the geosynchronous orbit where inclination = 0 and the period is equal to the rotation period of the earth (approx 1436 minutes), corresponding to a circular orbit of approx.
		For 63.4 inclination orbit with a perigee in the southern hemisphere the position of perigee remains fixed, which is why this inclination is used for Molniya orbits.
	zebu.uoregon.edu /~js/space/lectures/lec06.html (3325 words)

	Topics in Communication Engineering - Miscellaneous (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-06)
		The orbit chosen for a satellite is a compromise between the mission requirements, the capabilities of the rocket used to launch the satellite and orbital mechanics.
		A geostationary orbit is a special case of the geosynchronous orbit where inclination = 0 and the period is equal to the rotation period of the earth (approx 1436 minutes), corresponding to a circular orbit of approx.
		For 63.4 inclination orbit with a perigee in the southern hemisphere the position of perigee remains fixed, which is why this inclination is used for Molniya orbits.
	maxpages.com /mohshehata/topics - !http://maxpages.com/mohshehata/topics (2469 words)

	Practical Astronautics
		geostationary - an orbit whose orbit lies in the equatorial plane (inclination = 0) and whose period is equal to the rotational rate of the earth.
		inclination - the angle between the orbit plane and the equator of the primary body, for earth orbits the inclination is equal to the highest lattitude that the spacecraft's ground track crosses.
		LAN realtes the orbits orientation to the Prime Meridian.
	astronautica.com /astro (1528 words)

	[No title]
		Satellite orbits are "grouped" into general categories because a major characteristic of a particular orbit in the "group" produces a highly desired ground track or an aspect of the orbit which is needed to accomplish the main purpose of the satellite.
		Molniya orbits typically have large eccentricities (0.73 for example) and perigee altitudes of 200 to 1000 kilometers, keeping the satellite in view of the high northern latitudes for around 11 hours of every 12.
		That temporary new orbit was the transfer orbit and was an elliptical orbit which intersected the old orbit and the new orbit.
	home.att.net /~sue.worden/SeeSat-FAQ/Chapter-04.txt (2304 words)

	"MOLNIYA" RESEARCH & INDUSTRIAL CORPORATION - MULTIPURPOSE AEROSPACE SYSTEM (MAKS)
		In the first place it is a capability of putting payloads into any inclination orbits, high operation efficiency and low operational cost and absence of necessity to alienate areas under fields of fall of construction components.
		Unlike the rocket systems tied to few space vehicle launching sites and limited in orbit choice, MAKS may be used for emergency rescue of space object crews or for urgent aerial reconnaissance of regions of technogene and natural extraordinary situations.
		NPO MOLNIYA began to realize the MAKS project in the 1980s before the BURAN orbiter first flight using the experience and results of work on the SPIRAL project, the BOR experimental flight vehicles and the BURAN.
	www.ceebd.co.uk /ceebd/molniya6.htm (774 words)

	Communications satellite - RecipeFacts (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-06)
		A satellite in a geostationary orbit appears to be in a fixed position to an earth-based observer.
		Low earth orbiting satellites are less expensive to position in space than geostationary satellites and, because of their closer proximity to the ground, require lower signal strength (Recall that signal strength falls off as the square of the distance from the source, so the effect is dramatic).
		The first satellite of Molniya series was launched on April 23, 1965 and was used for experimental transmission of TV signal from Moscow uplink station to downlink stations, located in Russian Far East, in Khabarovsk, Magadan and Vladivostok.
	www.recipeland.com:8080 /facts/Communications_satellite (2508 words)

	Planetary orbit
		Orbits were first analyzed mathematically by Johannes Kepler who formulated his results in his three laws of planetary motion.
		First, he found that the orbits of the planets in our solar system are elliptical, not circular (or epicyclic), as had previously been believed, and that the sun is not located at the center of the orbits, but rather at one focus.
		As an object orbits another, the periapsis is that point at which the two objects are closest to each other and the apoapsis is that point at which they are the farthest from each other.
	articles.gourt.com /en/orbit (2750 words)

	Molniya 8K78
		Announced mission: Prolonged exploration of outer space during flight to the planet Mars; establishment of inter-planetary radio communications; photgraphing of the planet Mars and subsquent radio-transmission to Earth of the photographs of the surface of Mars thus obtained.
		Although the escape stage and payload reached orbit, the strong third stage vibrations shook a fuse loose from its mount in the main nozzle of the escape stage Block L's engine.
		Photo transmissions by facsimile were returned to earth from a distance of 2,200,000 km on July 29 and were retransmitted later from a distance of 31,500,000 km, thus proving the ability of the communications system.
	www.astronautix.com /lvs/mola8k78.htm (3370 words)

	Molniya
		Such orbits, that have become known as Molniya-type orbits, require less rocket power to achieve than a geosynchronous orbit and are better suited to communications with northern latitudes.
		This constellation, like that of all subsequent Molniyas, consisted of four pairs of spacecraft with orbits inclined at 90o to one another, replenished as necessary.
		All Molniya satellites have masses of 1,500-1,800 kg and have been placed in orbit by Molniya 8K78 launch vehicles, mostly from Plesetsk but also from Baikonur.
	www.daviddarling.info /encyclopedia/M/Molniya.html (235 words)

	Oko (US-KS)
		The choice of observation geometry and of the highly elliptical orbits has been usually attributed to the lack of proper infrared sensors and data processing capabilities that are required for obtaining a look-down capability.
		Satellites that were placed into geosynchronous orbit were the same first-generation satellites that were deployed in highly elliptical orbits.
		The resulting constellation was still experimental, for the satellites were deployed on orbits in such a way that their groundtracks were shifted about 30 degrees westward from the position that will later become nominal.
	www.skyrocket.de /space/doc_sdat/oko.htm (1189 words)

	Orbit definitions (Henry Spencer) (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-06)
		GTO Geostationary Transfer Orbit, an orbit at modest inclination with perigee at LEO and apogee at Clarke orbit.
		Molniya orbit Elliptical orbit at a specific inclination, 60-odd degrees, usually with apogee above the Northern Hemisphere.
		The Earth's equatorial bulge normally causes the position of apogee&perigee to rotate in the plane of an elliptical orbit, but at the particular inclination of the Molniya orbits, this effect is zero and the apogee stays where it's put.
	yarchive.net /space/orbits/orbit_definitions.html (605 words)

	2B.9 The role of the Molniya Orbit Imager in the Global Observing System (2007 - 87ANNUAL_23iips)
		One way to address this shortcoming of the Global Observing System is to exploit the high-latitude imaging capabilities of the so-called Molniya orbit, a highly eccentric, highly inclined orbit in which the spacecraft for extended periods of time functions like a quasi-geostationary platform hovering over the high latitudes.
		The Molniya Orbit Imager - a proposal to deploy a GOES-like imager in this orbit - has been under development at the Goddard Space Flight Center since March 2004.
		The current status of the mission proposal will be reviewed, and special emphasis will be placed on end user applications and on the synergy between the Molniya orbit and the existing satellite systems in sun-synchronous and geostationary orbits.
	ams.confex.com /ams/87ANNUAL/techprogram/paper_118640.htm (287 words)

	Chapter 1: Spacecraft Systems Overview
		The inclination of these orbits, which is the angle between the plane of the equator and the plane of the orbit, can vary from 0 deg to greater than 90 deg.
		These orbits are highly elliptical (apogee 38,900 km, perigee [the point in the orbit with the lowest altitude above the planet surface] 550 km) and highly inclined (62 deg).
		Orbits used in interplanetary missions range from simple, direct planet-to-planet transfer orbits to complicated trajectories involving close flybys past multiple planets on the way to a final destination.
	www.aero.org /publications/gilmore/gilmore-1.html (3328 words)

	Space Debris Incidents Involving Soviet/Russian Launches
		However, it is the Molniya-type orbit satellites which have been subjected to partial disintegrations (geosynchronous Oko satellites are far too high for any fragmentation events which might have happened to be recorded, but these were launched after the debris problem with the eccentric orbit satellites had been solved).
		To date the debris clouds from these explosions have quickly decayed from orbit, but there is the potential for debris to intersect the orbit of another spacecraft in a low orbit, resulting in that spacecraft's own destruction or damage.
		Additionally, the revelation of the Ekran 2 partial disintegration in geosynchronous orbit shows that we are totally ignorant of any partial or total disintegrations of satellites and rocket bodies (the latter due to residual propellants) at the orbital altitude.
	www.friends-partners.org /oldfriends/jgreen/bispaper.html (4964 words)

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