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	Read about Mushroom bodies at WorldVillage Encyclopedia. Research Mushroom bodies and learn about Mushroom bodies here! (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-20)
		Comparisons between genes early in mushroom body development show a homology with similar developing genes in the forebrain of mammals.
		Studies of fruit fly mushroom bodies have been particularly important for understanding the genetic basis of their functioning, since the genetics of this species are known in exceptional detail.
		Mushroom Body Memoir (http://www.ini.unizh.ch/~pfmjv/InsectCognition/nat+rev+neurosci_4_266.mb-review.pdf) from the University of Zurich
	encyclopedia.worldvillage.com /s/b/Mushroom_bodies (354 words)

	Mushroom bodies (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-20)
		The mushroom bodies or corpora pedunculata are a pair of structures in the brain of insects and other arthropods.
		Mushroom bodies are known to be involved in learning and memory, particulary for smell.
		Because they are small compared to the brain structures of vertebrates, and yet many arthropods are capable of quite complex learning, it is hoped that investigations of the mushroom bodies will allow a clear view of the neurophysiology of animal cognition.
	www.sciencedaily.com /encyclopedia/mushroom_bodies (421 words)

	Intégration Neuronale - le Laboratoire de NeuroBiologie - the Laboratory of NeuroBiology (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-20)
		Mushroom bodies represent the main sensory integrative center of the insect brain and probably play a major role in the adaptation of behavioral responses to environment.
		Mushroom bodies, which are the main integrative center for insect sensorial information, play a critical role in associative olfactory learning and memory.
		Mushroom bodies are the main integrative structures of insect brain.
	www.lnb.cnrs-mrs.fr /FRENCH/publi/pubINNC.html (1269 words)

	Nicholas J. Strausfeld, Arizona Research Laboratories Division of Neurobiology
		The brains of insects are equipped with paired mushroom bodies– centers that, like the hippocampus, play a role in spatial learning and memory and in context-dependent sensory integration.
		We are studying the organization of mushroom bodies in the cockroach, Periplaneta americana, recording from identified neurons during multisensory stimulation.
		Mushroom bodies are being investigated anatomically, with particular attention to ensembles of peptidergic neurons that subdivide the honey bee mushroom bodies into discrete parallel microprocessors that may play crucial roles in sensory association.
	www.neurobio.arizona.edu /faculty/strausfeld/index.php (890 words)

	Experience- and age-related outgrowth of intrinsic neurons in the mushroom bodies of the adult worker honeybee. (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-20)
		Previous studies have shown that foragers have an increased volume of neuropil associated with the mushroom bodies, a brain region involved in learning, memory, and sensory integration.
		Studies using Golgi impregnation asked whether the growth of the collar region of the mushroom body neuropil was a result of growth of the dendritic processes of the mushroom body intrinsic neurons, the Kenyon cells.
		Our findings indicate that, under natural conditions, the cytoarchitectural complexity of neurons in the mushroom bodies of adult honeybees increases as a function of increasing age, but that foraging experience promotes additional dendritic branching and growth.
	www.arclab.org /medlineupdates/abstract_11487663.html (282 words)

	Evolution, Discovery, and Interpretations of Arthropod Mushroom Bodies -- Strausfeld et al. 5 (1): 11 -- Learning & ...
		Mushroom bodies are prominent neuropils found in annelids and in all arthropod groups except crustaceans.
		Neuroanatomical evidence suggests that mushroom bodies in chelicerates are second-order neuropils of the olfactory pathway.
		Vertical lobes of the mushroom bodies are connected with the anterior region of the superior medial and lateral protocerebra (s m pr and s l pr).
	www.learnmem.org /cgi/content/full/5/1/11 (9240 words)

	British Journal of Pharmacology - Octopamine receptors in the honey bee and locust nervous system: pharmacological ...
		To study brain area specific expression of the octopamine receptor, the brains of locusts and bees were desheathed, the retinae, the optic lobes, the mushroom bodies, the antennal lobes, the remainder of the brain, the suboesophageal ganglion and the three thoracic ganglia were dissected, and used to determine the OAR density.
		In the honey bee, the receptor densities of the optic lobes, the mushroom bodies, and the remainder of the brain were evaluated using Scatchard analysis of saturation data.
		Although the mushroom bodies are areas of highest receptor density in bees and locusts, the receptors are present in other parts of the brain in considerable concentrations.
	www.nature.com /bjp/journal/v130/n3/full/0703338a.html (5256 words)

	Natural History: The seat of insect learning? - a region of the brain called mushroom bodies
		Various lines of evidence have focused attention on the mushroom bodies: cup-shaped structures perched atop the insect's brain that receive signals from multiple sensory organs and in turn send signals to centers of the brain that control behavior.
		If, however, the researchers sever the connection between the mushroom bodies and the rest of the brain, the insect is lost; its ability to orient itself in space is destroyed.
		It is as though the mushroom bodies are preparing for the challenges of life outside the nest -- the need to locate sources of pollen and nectar, for example, and then to navigate back to the colony to "report" their discovery.
	www.findarticles.com /p/articles/mi_m1134/is_n8_v106/ai_20148001 (1033 words)

	Body (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-20)
		The fungi are characterised by the absence of chlorophyll (pigment responsible for green colour of plants) and undifferentiated bodies, except the spore bearing structures.
		The fruiting bodies, mushrooms, are fleshy spore bearing structures of the fungi.
		The mushroom yield is expressed either in terms of kg per square meter or as kg mushroom per 100 kg of compost at filling.
	www.nabard.org /roles/ms/ap/mushroom.htm (3535 words)

	The Organization of Extrinsic Neurons and Their Implications in the Functional Roles of the Mushroom Bodies in ...
		The cell body lies in the posterior dorsal cortex (arrowhead), and the fiber bifurcates in the dorsal protocerebrum (arrow).
		Mushroom body lobe efferents, or output neurons, are a class of extrinsic neurons that are genuine relay neurons having axons
		Mushroom body lobe afferents are defined as neurons that supply the lobes from dendrites in the protocerebrum (Figs.
	www.learnmem.org /cgi/content/full/5/1/52 (9562 words)

	Dopamine and Mushroom Bodies in Drosophila: Experience-Dependent and -Independent Aspects of Sexual Behavior -- ...
		diminished staining in the region of the mushroom bodies.
		Expression of Drosophila mushroom body mutations in alternative genetic backgrounds: A case study of the mushroom body miniature gene (mbm).
		Preferential expression in mushroom bodies of the catalytic subunit of protein kinase A and its role in learning and memory.
	www.learnmem.org /cgi/content/full/5/1/157 (3801 words)

	Experience- and Age-Related Outgrowth of Intrinsic Neurons in the Mushroom Bodies of the Adult Worker Honeybee -- ...
		Mushroom body total neuropil and collar neuropil volume estimates for honeybees of differing ages and experience.
		Li YS, Strausfeld NJ (1997) Morphology and sensory modality of mushroom body extrinsic neurons in the brain of the cockroach, Periplaneta americana.
		Mobbs PG (1982) The brain of the honey bee Apis mellifera L. The connections and spatial organization of the mushroom bodies.
	www.jneurosci.org /cgi/content/full/21/16/6395 (7560 words)

	Cultured Insect Mushroom Body Neurons Express Functional Receptors for Acetylcholine, GABA, Glutamate, Octopamine, and ...
		The intrinsic interneurons of the mushroom body (or Kenyon cells) receive in the calyx inputs from a variety of sources (i.e., from optic, antennal, and tritocerebral tracts) and connect, mainly in the lobes, to extrinsic fibers that project to the lateral protocerebral neuropile and to premotor centers (Schildberger 1983).
		In the last 2 decades, insect mushroom bodies were demonstrated to show morphological plasticity even in adults.
		Until recently, studies on the mushroom body interneurons, the Kenyon cells, were limited by difficulties of access.
	jn.physiology.org /cgi/content/full/81/1/1 (6132 words)

	Neuronal cAMP-dependent protein kinase type II is concentrated in mushroom bodies of Drosophila melanogaster and the ... (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-20)
		Neuronal cAMP-dependent protein kinase type II is concentrated in mushroom bodies of Drosophila melanogaster and the honeybee Apis mellifera.
		Neuronal cAMP-dependent protein kinase type II is concentrated in mushroom bodies of Drosophila melanogaster and the honeybee Apis mellifera.Agents which elevate cytoplasmic Ca2+ levels have no effects on PKA activity in cultured Kenyon cells.
		Since the mushroom bodies are central sites of olfactory learning mediated via cAMP-dependent signaling, the modulatory functions of transmitters on PKA activity in Kenyon cells from the honeybee were tested.
	www.pdg.cnb.uam.es /UniPub/iHOP/gp/1112539.html (265 words)

	Selective neuroanatomical plasticity and division of labour in the honeybee. (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-20)
		The mushroom bodies in the protocerebrum are believed to be the structures of the insect brain most closely associated with higher-order sensory integration and learning.
		In addition, anatomical reorganization of the mushroom bodies occurs in adult flies, and possibly in adult honeybees; disturbance of electrical activity in this region disrupts memory formation in honeybees.
		Little is known, however, about the relationship of naturally occurring anatomical changes in the mushroom bodies to naturally occurring behavioural plasticity.
	www.arclab.org /medlineupdates/abstract_8321320.html (188 words)

	EEB: News (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-20)
		While males rely more on vision and have larger eyes and optic lobes than workers, their mushroom bodies receive less visual input, indicating that their behavior is more stereotypic and does not depend much on visual learning and memory.
		Olfactory information from the antennal lobe is processed by the mushroom bodies' lip region, which is larger in ants than it is in bees.
		Mushroom body plasticity is revealed by ablation experiments: when an antenna is cut off, the sensory afferents degenerate and the olfactory glomeruli are substantially reduced in size.
	eebweb.arizona.edu /news/2003-2004/recruit_posters.htm (2969 words)

	Preferential expression of the gene for a putative inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor homologue in the mushroom ... (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-20)
		Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction analysis showed that the gene was expressed strongly in the head and weakly in the antennae, legs, thorax, and abdomen.
		A gene expressed preferentially in the mushroom bodies of the brain of the worker honeybee Apis mellifera L. was identified by the differential display method and its cDNA was isolated.
		In situ hybridization revealed that the gene encoding clone A1 was expressed preferentially in the mushroom bodies and not in the optic lobes, antennal lobes and central bodies; in the mushroom body, it was expressed strongly in the large type Kenyon cells and weakly in the small type Kenyon cells.
	www.pdg.cnb.uam.es /UniPub/iHOP/gp/1301429.html (105 words)

	Cholinergic Synaptic Transmission in Insect Mushroom Bodies In Vitro -- Oleskevich 82 (2): 1091 -- Journal of ...
		pathway in the mushroom body is 1) mediated primarily by acetylcholine
		Mercer, A. and Erber, J. The effects of amines on evoked potentials recorded in the mushroom bodies of the bee brain.
		Nighorn, A., Healy, M. and Davis, R. The cyclic AMP phosphodiesterase encoded by the Drosophila dunce gene is concentrated in the mushroom body neuropil.
	jn.physiology.org /cgi/content/full/82/2/1091 (3280 words)

	A Novel Octopamine Receptor with Preferential Expression in Drosophila Mushroom Bodies -- Han et al. 18 (10): 3650 -- ...
		expression in the mushroom body neuropil and the ellipsoid body
		Nighorn A, Healy MJ, Davis RL (1991) The cyclic AMP phosphodiesterase encoded by the Drosophila dunce gene is concentrated in the mushroom body neuropil.
		Schürmann F-W (1987) The architecture of the mushroom bodies and related neuropils in the insect brain.
	www.jneurosci.org /cgi/content/full/18/10/3650 (4935 words)

	Ultrastructural analyses of modular subunits in the mushroom bodies of the cockroach -- Iwasaki et al. 48 (1): 55 -- ...
		Ultrastructural analyses of modular subunits in the mushroom bodies of the cockroach -- Iwasaki et al.
		Ultrastructural analyses of modular subunits in the mushroom bodies of the cockroach
		The mushroom body is a higher centre of the insect brain involved
	jmicro.oupjournals.org /cgi/content/abstract/48/1/55 (244 words)

	Olympus FluoView Resource Center: Confocal Gallery - Drosophila Adult Brain
		Mushroom bodies in the specimen were labeled with green fluorescent protein (GFP), and are highlighted in the green overlay.
		Mushroom bodies are vital centers for high-order sensory assimilation and learning in Drosophila melanogaster and other insects.
		The modern understanding of these bodies has been greatly enhanced through the utilization of confocal microscopy techniques, especially optical sectioning, fluorescent marking, and three-dimensional visualization.
	www.olympusfluoview.com /gallery/drosophilabrainsmall.html (292 words)

	WVU - Department of Biology - Faculty
		Development of laminar organization in the mushroom bodies of the cockroach: Kenyon cell proliferation, outgrowth, and maturation.
		Taurine-, aspartate- and glutamate-like immunoreactivity identifies chemically distinct subdivisions of Kenyon cells in the cockroach mushroom body.
		Development and evolution of the insect mushroom bodies: towards the understanding of conserved developmental mechanisms in a higher brain center.
	www.as.wvu.edu /biology/faculty/farrispub.htm (212 words)

	Dr. Dagmar Malun (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-20)
		Research in the lab presently focuses on the mushroom bodies of the honeybee (Apis mellifera), prominent neuropil structures in the dorsal protocerebrum which are thought to represent centers of higher neuronal integration and are suggested to play a major role in learning and memory.
		We are also studying the formation of antennal lobes and mushroom bodies during metamorphosis by labeling olfactory projection neurons during consecutive developmental stages (Schröter, Malun, 2000).
		In a second approach we are studying the effects of experimental ablation of Kenyon cell precursors on mushroom body development (by applying the mitotic blocker hydroxyurea to first instar larvae), and ultimately, on the behavior of the adult animal.
	www.neurobiologie.fu-berlin.de /Malun.html (1217 words)

	[No title]
		It seems unlikely, however, that the mushroom bodies are generally required for classical conditioning, as flﬂies without them do very well in classical conditioning with visual CSs [21].
		Although the cAMP cascade and its downstream targets are both necessary and sufﬁcient in the mushroom bodies for these tasks [15,22], in operant conditioning they are involved in neurons outside the mushroom bodies and in a different way than in classical conditioning [19].
		Nighorn A, Healy MJ, Davis RL: The cyclic AMP phosphodiesterase encoded by the Drosophila dunce gene is concentrated in the mushroom body neuropil.
	www.brembs.net /learning/aplysia/conb03 (4612 words)

	Mushroom Bodies Suppress Locomotor Activity in Drosophila melanogaster -- Martin et al. 5 (1): 179 -- Learning & Memory
		Mushroom Bodies Suppress Locomotor Activity in Drosophila melanogaster -- Martin et al.
		Normal function of the mushroom body defect gene of Drosophila is required for the regulation of the number and proliferation of neuroblasts.
		Schürmann, F.W. The architecture of the mushroom bodies and related neuropils in the insect brain.
	www.learnmem.org /cgi/content/full/5/1/179 (4750 words)

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