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	The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition: neutrino astronomy @ HighBeam Research (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-08)
		NEUTRINO ASTRONOMY [neutrino astronomy] study of stars by means of their emission of neutrinos, fundamental particles that result from nuclear reactions and are emitted by stars along with light.
		Neutrinos, on the other hand, are absorbed only very weakly by matter and, once created by nuclear reactions in the stellar core, pass directly through the outer parts of the star.
		Neutrino "observatories" are located in deep mines, where hundreds of feet of rock shield out the cosmic rays that would completely swamp the tiny effects due to neutrinos.
	www.highbeam.com /library/doc0.asp?DOCID=1E1:neutrast&refid=ip_encyclopedia_hf (355 words)

	SN 1987A - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		Approximately three hours before the visible light from SN 1987A reached the Earth, a burst of neutrinos was observed at three separate neutrino observatories (Kamiokande II, IMB and Baksan).
		This was the first time neutrinos emitted from a supernova had been observed directly, and the observations were consistent with theoretical supernova models in which most of the energy of the collapse is radiated away in neutrinos.
		Model studies indicate that 99% of the energy radiated by supernovae is in the form of neutrinos.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/SN_1987A (581 words)

	[No title] (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-08)
		Neutrino observations are specifically interesting because the detection of high-energy multi-TeV neutrinos will provide unambiguous evidence for cosmic acceleration of protons and nuclei, and their arrival direction will point to the location of the accelerators.
		Assuming that the high-energy neutrino and photon fluxes are similar, gamma-ray observations imply that a km3-scale detector is required for the detection of high-energy neutrino sources.
		Several neutrinos may be detected during a single outburst by a km3-scale detector, thereby providing a powerful probe of microquasar jet physics and of their innermost structure.
	www.nestor.org.gr /hena/july1.doc (7375 words)

	SNO -- Northern Ontario Hosts a Unique International Laboratory
		A neutrino observatory must have a very large receiving device if it is to have a reasonable opportunity of trapping just a few specimens by direct strikes on atomic nuclei.
		Neutrino observatories are at the very cutting edge of research in physics and astronomy.
		About 7,000 neutrinos a year are expected to interact with the nuclei of atoms in the 1000 tonnes of heavy water in the observatory's giant acrylic container.
	www.ewh.ieee.org /reg/7/millennium/neutrino/sno_blue.html (2183 words)

	[No title]
		Neutrinos may play a role in sculpting the intricate architecture of galaxies and in seeding space with chemical elements spit out by exploding stars.
		Neutrinos zipping through the sphere react with the deuterium atoms in different ways, depending on what type of neutrino it is. Scientists will be looking for two specific reactions: one triggered just by electron neutrinos, the second by any type of neutrino.
		Neutrinos passing through the tank sometimes interact with atoms in the heavy water, leaving behind telltale traces of the characteristics of the neutrinos.
	superk.physics.sunysb.edu /~alpinist/pub/Dallas_Morning_News_2000.txt (2377 words)

	The Sun and Stellar Structure
		Neutrino detectors use hundreds of thousands of liters of of these materials in a container buried under many tens of meters of rock to shield the detectors from other energetic particles from space called cosmic rays.
		Neutrinos produced in the core of the Sun change into other types of neutrinos during their flight from the Sun to the Earth.
		The Sudbury Neutrino Observatory (Canada), using almost 900,000 liters of heavy water, was built to detect all three types of neutrinos.
	www.astronomynotes.com /starsun/s4.htm (1594 words)

	Neutrino Models Aren't Separable
		The Sun has never delivered as many neutrinos as traditional theories predicted, but experts expect the deficit to be explained by a better understanding of neutrinos: For one thing, they appear to have mass, an old idea that has been confirmed by recent data.
		If neutrinos are massless, their lives are predictable: A neutrino born as a specific flavor (electron, muon, or tau) remains in that flavor.
		But if neutrinos have mass, then each propagating neutrino exists in a state composed of oscillating proportions of the three flavors--the flavor seen by a detector depends on those proportions at the moment of detection.
	focus.aps.org /story/v6/st4 (621 words)

	ESF - Neutrino Astrophysics (NEUTRINO)
		Neutrinos are the most abundant particles in the universe, because of their great production during the hot big bang in numbers comparable to the photons of the 2.7K cosmic background radiation.
		Perhaps the most significant development came in 1998 when it was announced that measurements performed by the Super-Kamiokande neutrino observatory left little doubt that different neutrino types do change their identity as they propagate, suggesting that they are not strictly massless as had been assumed.
		This opened the door to a new era, ensuring that neutrino physics in particular and astrophysics in general would be a prime focus of the scientific community for years to come.
	www.esf.org /esf_article.php?language=0&activity=2&domain=1&article=34&page=70 (732 words)

	CERN Courier - Between neutrinos and the de - IOP Publishing - article (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-08)
		Furthermore, neutrinos could reveal the presence of dark matter in the form of neutralinos, the lightest of the yet undiscovered particles predicted by supersymmetry theories.
		The observation of the same phenomenon is also possible with large neutrino telescopes using the Earth's diameter as a baseline and at higher energy, thus with very different systematics.
		Neutrinos can only be detectable through their interaction with matter.
	cerncourier.com /main/article/40/5/18 (1540 words)

	Physics Bedrock Cracks, Sun Shines In: Science News Online, June 23, 2001 (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-08)
		"Neutrinos are very confused, very schizophrenic," explains John N. Bahcall of the Institute for Advanced Studies in Princeton, N.J. By pinpointing the source of the neutrino shortfall, the Sudbury team has made "a beautiful measurement" that "confirms our calculations of how the sun shines," he says.
		The scientists concluded that muon neutrinos taking the longer routes had time to oscillate into other flavors that were more difficult for their detector to see.
		Discerning electron neutrinos from other neutrinos is the key capability that had been needed to solve the solar puzzle, scientists say.
	www.sciencenews.org /20010623/fob1.asp (1155 words)

	Why is this measure important? (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-08)
		Recent experiments have explicitly shown that neutrinos oscillate, or change their type or flavor as they travel from their source to the detector; this requires that the neutrinos have mass and requires extension of the Standard Model of fundamental interactions.
		Precise determination of various components of the neutrino flux from different sources provides stringent limits on neutrino properties (masses and mixings) as well as necessary input to the theory of the main-sequence stellar evolution.
		The neutrino mass scale that is inferred from the solar and atmospheric neutrino experiments implies the possibility of seeing neutrinoless double beta decay with experiments sensitive to masses of about 50 meV.
	www.er.doe.gov /measures/scprograms/np/measures/longterm/measure4/measure_important.htm (477 words)

	Hot Dark Matter
		The foremost HDM candidate is a particle known as the "neutrino." This elusive particle was predicted to exist as early as 1931 by physicist Wolfgang Pauli in order to account for the conservation of momentum and energy in beta decay.
		Pauli's assertion that the neutrino would be exceptionally elusive proved correct, as it would be another 25 years from the time of its prediction that two experimentalists would finally detect a neutrino.
		Of particular interest to astronomers is the "solar neutrino problem." Neutrino observatories have consistently measured only a fraction of the expected neutrino flux from the Sun as predicted from standard solar models.
	aether.lbl.gov /www/science/hdm.html (1004 words)

	Sudbury Neutrino Observatory - Art History Online Reference and Guide
		The first measurements of the number of solar neutrinos reaching the earth were taken in the 1960s, and all experiments prior to SNO observed a third to a half fewer neutrinos than were predicted by the Standard Solar Model.
		As neutrinos emitted by a supernova are released earlier than the photons, it would be possible to alert the astronomical community before the supernova be visible.
		The Sudbury Neutrino Observatory is a major setting in the Neanderthal Parallax trilogy by Canadian science fiction author Robert J. Sawyer.
	www.arthistoryclub.com /art_history/SNO (409 words)

	Scientists put new spin on mystery of missing solar neutrinos : 4/01
		The current consensus is that matter may turn electron neutrinos into undetectable muon or tau neutrinos as they fly out of the center of the sun.
		The weirdest of astronomical observatories, neutrino detectors consist of huge tanks of fluid buried thousands of feet underground to reduce background "noise" from cosmic rays, which cannot travel through the rock that neutrinos sail right through.
		If Super-K data show that the neutrino flux is varying, that would be the "smoking gun" that would finally settle the argument about whether the solar neutrino flux is variable or constant.
	news-service.stanford.edu /news/2001/april18/solarneutrinos-418.html (1631 words)

	RedOrbit - Reference Library (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-08)
		Approximately three hours before the visible light from SN 1987a reached the Earth, a burst of neutrinos was observed at two separate neutrino observatories, which had originally been built to study the solar neutrino problem.
		Although the actual neutrino count was small - less than twenty in all - it was a significant rise from the previously-observed background level.
		This was the first time neutrinos emitted from a supernova had been directly observed, and this detection was consistent with theoretical supernova models, in which most of the energy of the collapse is radiated away in neutrinos.
	www.rednova.com /education/reference_library?article_id=70 (354 words)

	Tiny, Plentiful and Really Hard to Catch (Neutrinos)
		Astrophysicists are building neutrino observatories in Antarctica and the Mediterranean, which will provide new views of the cosmos, illuminating the violent happenings at the centers of galaxies, distant bright quasars and elsewhere.
		Because neutrinos are so aloof, successful experiments must have either a lot of neutrinos, produced en masse by accelerators or nuclear reactors, or a lot of matter for neutrinos to run into.
		Only occasionally, a neutrino runs into a proton or neutron among the many atoms in the steel plates, and the wreckage of that collision is recorded as tiny bursts of light careering through the detector.
	www.freerepublic.com /focus/f-news/1391860/posts (2537 words)

	NASA's Cosmos
		The fusion reactions that generate the Sun’s energy also create great quantities of neutrinos that pass effortlessly through both the Sun and the Earth; billions of solar neutrinos are streaking right through you in the time it takes to blink your eye.
		Subterranean neutrino observatories always come up short, detecting only one third to one half of the number of neutrinos that theory says they should detect, a discrepancy known as the solar neutrino problem.
		Recent observations at the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory indicate that neutrinos have an identity crisis, switching between types, or flavors, on their way to us from the center of the Sun.
	ase.tufts.edu /cosmos/print_overview.asp?id=24 (599 words)

	RedOrbit NEWS \| Supernova Warning System Will Give Astronomers Earlier Notice (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-08)
		Neutrino bursts could thus afford the astronomical community its earliest possible alert of such supernovas, Scholberg and 20 authors wrote.
		A neutrino physicist who was corresponding author of the "New Journal of Physics" paper, she helped write the software for that computerized interconnection.
		The idea is that neutrino detectors sensing a type II supernova will "basically light up at the same time," she said.
	www.rednova.com /modules/news/tools.php?tool=print&id=89751 (1209 words)

	Solar Fusion & Neutrinos
		There was already quite a bit of convincing evidence that neutrino oscillations were the key to solving the solar neutrino problem, when in June 2001, news from the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory added the coup de grace.
		However, by combining those results with results from other neutrino observatories (notably Super Kamiokande), which are (potentially) "contaminated" by other types of neutrinos, they are able to determine the level of "contamination".
		By combining the observed flux of electron neutrinos, with the observed non-electron neutrinos, the total is the theoretically expected flux of electron neutrinos from the sun.
	www.tim-thompson.com /fusion.html (6550 words)

	Kamiokande and Super-Kamiokande (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-08)
		Neutrinos entering the detector can scatter elastically off electrons in the water by either by neutral-current or charged-current weak interactions.
		B and hep neutrinos are generally accessible to the detector.
		Furthermore, though the detector is sensitive to all neutrino flavors through neutral current scattering, it is drastically more sensitive to electron neutrinos and is unable to distinguish between flavors.
	socrates.berkeley.edu /~jpf/Astro228Pres/Kamiokande.html (420 words)

	Sno Song, by Don Geesaman
		To detect them, physicists have constructed "neutrino observatories" far underground, where they are completely shielded from annoyances caused by high-energy cosmic rays.
		This song is about all the physicists who have worked in these underground observatories, and especially the discovery in 2001 at the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory (SNO) of the solution to the "solar neutrino problem".
		Briefly, the number of neutrinos emitted by the sun appeared to be a factor of 2-3 lower than predicted by the theory for the nuclear reactions powering the sun; this theory was championed by John Bahcall (mentioned in the next-to-last verse).
	www.haverford.edu /physics-astro/songs/snosong.htm (665 words)

	science magazine article (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-08)
		Existing neutrino observatories, including an earlier version of SuperKamiokande, have already demonstrated the principle of OMNIS by detecting a handful of neutrinos--19 [+-] 1, to be exact--from the great supernova in 1987.
		Muon and tau neutrinos--two of the three neutrino flavors--would smash either sodium and chlorine nuclei in the salt walls of the mine or iron nuclei in slabs neat the detectors.
		Electron neutrinos, which are expected to shed some of their energy reviving the supernova shock, wouldn't pack enough punch to break up those nuclei; intead, slabs of lead, which has more fragile nuclei, might be added to capture those events.
	www.physics.ohio-state.edu /~asmurphy/science.html (1084 words)

	Neutrinos Reveal Star's Inner Secrets
		At the heart of the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory in Canada is a large spherical vessel of water surrounded by 9500 photodetectors.
		In their paper, the SUNY team calculates the neutrino energy that would be detected for proto-neutron stars made of three proposed forms of "quark matter": matter in which quarks become unglued from each other, matter filled with baryons containing strange quarks, and matter filled with kaon particles, which also contain strange quarks.
		In each case, the group describes a signature neutrino signal that could be detected at facilities like the new Sudbury Neutrino Observatory in Canada or Super-Kamiokande in Japan.
	focus.aps.org /story/v7/st26 (569 words)

	[No title] (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-08)
		As neutrino studies proceeded at accelerator laboratories in the 70's, and as astrophysicist learned more about strange and powerful objects throughout the universe, it slowy was realized that not only would neutrinos permit ``seeing'' into such objects, but that neutrinos might play crucial roles in these engines.
		It was clear that neutrino oscillations could be sought and early calculations of the effects of oscillations on the observation of muon angular distributions were made.
		When $PeV$ neutrinos are detected, one may employ the varying attenuation of the earth as it rotates relative to the source (or ensemable of sources) to extract the crossection.
	www.phys.hawaii.edu /~dumand/dumacomp.html (13246 words)

	1996 AMANDA Papers (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-08)
		The objective of neutrino astronomy, born with the identification of thermonuclear fusion in the sun and the particle processes controlling the fate of a nearby supernova, is to build instruments which reach throughout and far beyond our Galaxy and make measurements relevant to cosmology, astrophysics, cosmic-ray and particle physics.
		While a variety of collaborations are pioneering complementary methods by building neutrino detectors with effective area in excess of 0.01 km^2, we show here that the science dictates 1 km^2, or a 1 km^3 instrumented volume, as the natural scale of a high-energy neutrino telescope.
		Large new detectors of solar neutrinos are poised to exlpore new physics or exotic behavior of the sun.
	amanda.berkeley.edu /amanda/1996-papers.html (764 words)

	SIXTY YEARS OF DOUBLE BETA DECAY (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-08)
		Today, the potential of double beta decay includes a broad range of topics that are equally relevant to particle physics and astrophysics, such as masses of heavy neutrinos, of sneutrinos, as SUSY models, compositeness, leptoquarks, left-right symmetric models, and tests of Lorentz symmetry and equivalence principle in the neutrino sector.
		Double beta decay has become indispensable nowadays for solving the problem of the neutrino mass spectrum and the structure of the neutrino mass matrix — together with present and future solar and atmospheric neutrino oscillation experiments.
		Some future double beta experiments (like GENIUS) will be capable to be simultaneously neutrino observatories for double beta decay and low-energy solar neutrinos, and observatories for cold dark matter of ultimate sensitivity.
	www.worldscibooks.com /physics/4032.htm (259 words)

	Science News: Physics Bedrock Cracks, Sun Shines In - Brief Article
		In the first scientific data to emerge from the Sudbury (Ontario) Neutrino Observatory (SNO) in Canada, physicists have found evidence that their most fundamental theory of the universe--the so-called standard model (SN: 7/1/95, p.
		Neutrinos come in three types--which scientists call flavors--known as the electron neutrino, muon neutrino, and tau neutrino.
		What's more, according to quantum mechanics, neutrinos could oscillate only if they had mass--another contradiction to the standard model.
	www.findarticles.com /p/articles/mi_m1200/is_25_159/ai_76627422 (960 words)

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