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Topic: Normal science

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	Returning to Normal , Alaska Science Forum
		Carla Helfferich is a science writer at the Institute.
		According to Ted Cooney, a member of the Institute of Marine Science faculty at the University of Alaska Fairbanks, this was an exceptionally cold winter on the sound.
		Because plants and animals living on or near the shore could have been killed off by the cold, researchers finding a bed of dead mussels may be seeing the results of petroleum poisoning, of chill, or of interaction between the two.
	www.gi.alaska.edu /ScienceForum/ASF9/925.html (671 words)

	Kuhn 1
		Normal science "is predicated on the assumption that the scientific community knows what the world is like" (5)—scientists take great pains to defend that assumption.
		Normal science "means research firmly based upon one or more past scientific achievements, achievements that some particular scientific community acknowledges for a time as supplying the foundation for its further practice" (10).
		Although normal science is a pursuit not directed to novelties and tending at first to suppress them, it is nonetheless very effective in causing them to arise.
	www.diligio.com /kuhn_1.htm (8252 words)

	Thomas Kuhn (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-09)
		Normal science- "means research firmly based upon one or more past scientific achievements, achievements that some particular scientific community acknowledges for a time as supplying the foundation for its further practice".
		During periods of normal science, the primary task of scientists is to bring the accepted theory and fact into closer agreement.
		Kuhn argued that normal science progresses because members of a mature scientific community work from a single paradigm or from a closely related set and because different scientific communities seldom investigate the same problems.
	www2.hawaii.edu /~sharritt/CISTheoryExam/kuhn.html (740 words)

	Thomas Kuhn's Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-09)
		Normal science "means research firmly based upon one or more past scientific achievements, achievements that some particular scientific community acknowledges for a time as supplying the foundation for its further practice".
		Normal science consists in the actualisation of that promise.
		Science textbooks present the inaccurate view that science has reached its present state by a series of individual discoveries and inventions that, when gathered together, constitute the modern body of technical knowledge - the addition of bricks to a building.
	www.emory.edu /EDUCATION/mfp/kuhnsyn.html (4158 words)

	Phenomenology, Psychology, Science and History
		Utilizing Kuhn's (1962) conception of science as consisting of periods of revolution, which are followed by periods of "normal science," Giorgi takes up the banner of phenomenological psychology as a competing "paradigm" for the next period of "normal science" in the history of psychology.
		A "normal science" is able to come to fruition whenever a group of practitioners are able to take their particular "paradigm for granted." The scientist is no longer required "to build his field anew, starting from first principles and justifying the use of each concept introduced" (Kuhn, 1962, p.
		To appeal to a phenomenological psychology which is "authentic" as a "revolutionary science," which is therefore opposed to an "inauthentic" psychology as a "normal science," is to have already brought it into the frame of the "science" which Hoeller, along with Heidegger and Kuhn, critiques.
	www.mythosandlogos.com /janusheadsciencepaper.html (9404 words)

	We note readily upon reading the first few pages of Kuhn’s, The Structure of Scientific Revolution what he means by ... (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-09)
		This polemic, however, does not hold for science, for “in so far he [or she] is engaged in normal science, the research worker is a solver of puzzles, not a tester of paradigms.”(144) But without textbooks that tell us the right answer, we come to the question of how social science verifies its theory.
		Opposite to social science, “One of the strongest…rules of scientific life is the prohibition of appeals to heads of state or to the populace at large in matters scientific.”(168) Social science calls on all the “populace” to believe that what concerns the area of research concerns everyone.
		In addition, because the reward system in social science continues to put an undue emphasis on originality (and thus intellectual skill), needed follow-on work to important and convincing studies of the past are left undone, and thus opportunities to be effective outside the field dissipate.
	www.eden.rutgers.edu /~mcuddy/PhD_Exam/Kuhn-StructureOfSciRev_Keyes.htm (3365 words)

	Kuhn's Paradigms
		In normal science, the paradigm is already pre-formed, providing a foundation of theories, ontological assumptions, and procedures with which to work.
		If such foundational aspects had to be re-created in every instance that science was done, the process would be even less efficient than it currently is. In this sense, paradigms streamline the process of science, so long as normal science does not encounter major stumbling blocks that contradict its foundations.
		Revolutionary science is torturous and painful, for it shakes all of the confidence that science has in its present theories and underlying paradigms.
	physics.weber.edu /johnston/mundane/kuhn.htm (1631 words)

	Normal science - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		Normal science is a concept originated by Thomas Samuel Kuhn and elaborated in The Structure of Scientific Revolutions.
		The term refers to the relatively routine work of scientists experimenting within a paradigm, slowly accumulating detail in accord with established broad theory, not actually challenging or attempting to test the underlying assumptions of that theory.
		Kuhn identified this mode of science as being a form of "puzzle-solving."
	www.wikipedia.org /wiki/Normal_science (92 words)

	Subliminal Message2: Read Kuhn...Read Kuhn...Read Kuhn
		Normal science is defined to be a prediction on the assumption that the scientific community knows how the world works.
		The success of normal science relies on the willingness of the community to defend an assumption.
		This section answers the questions of what causes the group to abandon one tradition of normal research in favor of another, and how are they able to convert the entire profession to their way of seeing science and the world.
	carbon.cudenver.edu /stc-link/bkrvs/kuhn/overview.htm (1424 words)

	Kuhn and the Nature of Normal Science - Lantenengo.com
		In short, scientists fortify the paradigm by practicing normal science which aims to clean up any residue of doubt that may exist, and while doing so the paradigm will be articulated further.
		Kuhn is not saying that normal science isn't innovative; rather he is saying that the paradigm itself provides scientists with the imaginative tools needed to extend the paradigm.
		As we have seen, the problems in normal science spring from the paradigm and generate the majority of its labor, as well as intrinsically excite its primary aims.
	writing.lantenengo.com /kuhn.php (2838 words)

	Thomas Kuhn on paradigms in science (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-09)
		An immature science is preparadigmatic -- that is, it is still in its natural history phase of competing schools.
		What we speak of as "normal science" is the day to day scientific work of articulation of the dominant scientific paradigm.
		Therefore, science is not purely synonymous with "objective." Theories are systems of meaning explaining observed facts, and meaning is contingent on many psychological, sociological, and cultural factors that inevitably makes it less than completely certain.
	www.csulb.edu /~plowentr/Kuhn.htm (514 words)

	Research Methodologies for a Post-Normal Science (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-09)
		Led by the counter reference to normal science articulated by Funtowicz and Ravetz, it is worthwhile to consider the ideas of Kuhn (1970).
		Normal science - textbook science - is primarily a puzzle-solving activity.
		Having discussed science and post-normal science, and having considered the various philosophical aspects of inquiry, it is now possible to return to one of the opening questions.
	www.ejournal.ca /beth/webs/pnsresearch/index.html (9002 words)

	Extraordinary Science
		The defining difference between the two modes lies in the status of paradigms; in normal science one paradigm dominates and in extraordinary science new paradigms vie with the established one.
		In normal science, the assumptions that form the basis for the reigning paradigm are often treated as logical statements or even tautologies.
		It is the work of normal science to extend the reach of the current paradigm as widely as possible.
	home.earthlink.net /~yvonr/library/margin/kuhn.html (856 words)

	NUSAP net
		One is the picture of research science as "normally" consisting of puzzle solving within an unquestioned and unquestionable "paradigm", in the theory of T.S. Kuhn (Kuhn 1962).
		Since this context of science is one involving policy, we might see this extension of peer communities as analogous to earlier extensions of franchise in other fields, as allowing workers to form trade unions and women to vote.
		The world of "normal science" in which they were trained has its place in any scientific study of the environment, but it needs to be supplemented by awareness of the "post-normal" nature of the problems we now confront.
	www.nusap.net /sections.php?op=viewarticle&artid=13 (4190 words)

	Dr Ellis Evans, history and philosophy of science (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-09)
		Kuhn described the why and how of Science as consisting of a series of stages, (a) paradigm /normal science, (b) anomaly, (c) scientific revolution, (d) mature stage and (e) paradigm /normal science.
		The implication of this for Science is that, for much of the time, scientists follow a predetermined line of enquiry where questions posed are framed within the confines of that particular theory.
		In other words, Science is just one way of looking at the world and to identify the unifying principles of all there is may involve the insight of other approaches such as spirituality.
	www.sandrelli.net /science.htm (3099 words)

	Thomas Kuhn (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-09)
		Instead, science is "a series of peaceful interludes punctuated by intellectually violent revolutions" [Nicholas Wade, writing for Science], which he described as "the tradition-shattering complements to the tradition-bound activity of normal science." After such revolutions, "one conceptual world view is replaced by another" [Wade].
		According to Kuhn, it is the incompleteness and imperfection of the existing data-theory fit that define the puzzles that characterize normal science.
		Kuhn suggested that questions about whether a discipline is or is not a science can be answered only when members of a scholarly community who doubt their status achieve consensus about their past and present accomplishments.
	www.des.emory.edu /mfp/Kuhnsnap.html (1297 words)

	Kuhn in a Nutshell (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-09)
		He submits that revolutionary science is not merely one experiment building upon the last, as the traditional view holds.
		Kuhn refers to the old view of science as "normal science." In contrast to normal science there are revolutions.
		Kuhn argues that the puzzle-solving nature of normal science can sometimes lead to new theories when unexpected phenomenon occur, but normal science has become very good at producing these sorts of anomalies.
	carbon.cudenver.edu /stc-link/bkrvs/kuhn/nut.htm (297 words)

	NESH: Post-Normal Science (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-09)
		Classical science and conventional problem-solving techniques were labelled "normal science" by Kuhn (1970).
		Yet complex systems theory has provided insights into the behaviour of ecosystems that suggests normal science is insufficient (though still useful) in dealing with environmentally-related issues today.
		Funtowicz and Ravetz (1993) proposed the concept of "Post-Normal Science" to deal with problems outside the realm of normal science - a realm where objectivity is not possible, prediction and control are limited, and where society and politics must play a key role.
	www.ecologistics.com /nesh/pns.html (95 words)

	Michelle Dupuis
		Normal science is based on the assumption that the scientific community knows how the "world works." For normal science to be successful, this scientific community takes enormous steps to defend their ideas.
		Kuhn states that scientific revolution "are the tradition-shattering complements to the tradition-bound activity of normal science." (6) Many well-known scientists such as Copernicus and Newton went against normal science and created a scientific revolution.
		Normal science is caused by a scientific revolution.
	pangea.tec.selu.edu /~mdupuis/kuhn.htm (969 words)

	Life is log-normal !
		The figure at the cover page (Fig 1) provides a link between science and art and is not only interesting to look at.
		Their characterization in terms of the original data makes complicated things easy, from science to various applications and everyday life.
		Eckhard Limpert is at the Institute of Plant Sciences, and Werner A.
	www.inf.ethz.ch /personal/gut/lognormal/brochure.html (523 words)

	Normal Science Encyclopedia Article, Definition, History, Biography (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-09)
		Looking For normal science - Find normal science and more at Lycos Search.
		Find normal science - Your relevant result is a click away!
		Look for normal science - Find normal science at one of the best sites the Internet has to offer!
	www.karr.net /search/encyclopedia/Normal_science (260 words)

	Abstract from 1996 SRA-Europe Annual Meeting (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-09)
		Post-normal science is conceived as an essential tool for assuring proper scientific inputs when system uncertainties and decision stakes are high and where, as a consequence, core science is too narrow a tool.
		The goal of this paper is to connect post-normal science, especially as it applies to risk, with appropriate philosophical foundations.
		This alignment accomplishes two objectives: it strengthens the philosophical foundations of a post-normal science; and it ties the OREH perspective to the problem-solving strategies of post-normal science.
	www.riskworld.com /abstract/1996/sraeurop/ab6ad152.htm (288 words)

	Kuhn: normal science and revolutionary science (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-09)
		If you look at titles in any science journal, even the big ones directed at “everybody” like Science or Nature, you can’t understand them.
		Kuhn rejected the analysis of science as consisting of theories and experiments.
		He says that the unit of scientific belief is the “paradigm.” The basic idea is that scientists learn from standard examples how to proceed.
	zillion.philosophy.arizona.edu /~ScienceandInquiry/s20-10-4.html (262 words)

	Normal Science, Pathological Science and Psychometrics -- Michell 10 (5): 639 -- Theory & Psychology
		Normal Science, Pathological Science and Psychometrics -- Michell 10 (5): 639 -- Theory & Psychology
		A pathology of science is defined as a two-level breakdown in
		is a pathology of science, and an explanation of this fact is
	tap.sagepub.com /cgi/content/short/10/5/639 (276 words)

	Ducks, Rabbits, and Normal Science: Recasting the Kuhn's-eye View of Popper's Demarcation of Science -- Mayo 47 (2): ...
		Ducks, Rabbits, and Normal Science: Recasting the Kuhn's-eye View of Popper's Demarcation of Science -- Mayo 47 (2): 271 -- The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science
		Ducks, Rabbits, and Normal Science: Recasting the Kuhn's-eye View of Popper's Demarcation of Science
		that Popper lauds as the hallmark of science.
	bjps.oupjournals.org /cgi/content/abstract/47/2/271 (195 words)

	Part2Chpts1to8 (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-09)
		Normal Science focuses attention on a small range of narrow problems.
		If Normal Science is Puzzle Solving then there must be Rules.
		Normal Science is cumulative but adoption of new paradigms is not
	www.cs.stedwards.edu /~henrya/Part2.html (855 words)

	Post normal science, Environmental Policy under Conditions of Complexity
		Since this context of science is one involving policy, we might see this extension of peer communities as analogous to earlier extensions of franchise in other fields, as allowing workers to form trade unions and women to vote.
		They are called "citizens' juries", "focus groups", or "consensus conferences", or any one of a great variety of names; and their forms and powers are correspondingly varied.
		Particularly at the local level, the discovery is being made, again and again, that people not only care about their environment but also can become ingenious and creative in finding practical, partly technological, ways towards its improvement.
	www.jvds.nl /pns/pns.htm (4217 words)

	Post Normal Science (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-09)
		"Normal Science and Post–Normal Inquiry: A Context for Methodology," Dan McCarthy's PhD work at the University of Waterloo.
		Post-Normal Science: Environmental Policy under Conditions of Complexity is a survey of PNS.
		Thomas Kuhn has a lot to say about "paradigms" and post-normal as well as normal science.
	www.niwotridge.com /Resources/PostNormalScience.htm (409 words)

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