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	Indian Treaties
		On a deeper level Indian treaties are sometimes understood, particularly on the aboriginal side, as solemn pacts or sacred covenants between peoples that establish the underlying principles for the relationship linking those for whom Canada is an ancient homeland with those whose deepest family roots lie in other countries.
		On the aboriginal side the sacredness and binding character of treaties is not to be found primarily in the signature marks or in the legalistic language which adorn treaty documents.
		Instead the true force of their treaties with the Crown is rooted in what was actually said, often in aboriginal languages, at the time of the negotiations when treaty deliberations were frequently accompanied with the smoking of sacred pipes (CALUMET) or with an exchange of symbolically significant presents such as elaborately decorated WAMPUM belts.
	www.canadianencyclopedia.ca /index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0003983 (641 words)

	Office of the Treaty Commissioner (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-08-17)
		Pre-Confederation Treaties include the Peace and Friendship Treaties on the East Coast, the Treaty of Swegatchy (Southern Quebec), the Murray Treaty of 1760 (Quebec), the Upper Canada Treaties (Southern Ontario), the Robinson Treaties (Ontario), the Douglas Treaties of Vancouver Island, the Selkirk Treaty (Manitoba) and the Manitoulin Island Treaties (Ontario).
		Treaty 2 was signed on August 21, 1871 at the Manitoba House Post and Treaty 3, or the North-West Angle Treaty, was concluded on October 3, 1873, near the Lake of the Woods.
		Treaties have also been signed in the modern era, with the negotiation of the James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement in 1975 and most recently, the Nisga’a Treaty, which was concluded in 1999.
	www.otc.ca /FAQ.htm (1240 words)

	The Atlas of Canada - Historical Indian Treaties
		In the resulting "numbered treaties", the Indians surrendered all title to the lands covered, and in return, received tracts of land for reserves.
		These "numbered treaties" encompassed most of the provinces of Ontario, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, and the Mackenzie District of the Northwest Territories.
		Treaty Number 8 covered the northeast corner of British Columbia, while the two treaties signed in 1923 covered the area south and east of Georgian Bay.
	atlas.nrcan.gc.ca /site/english/maps/historical/indiantreaties/historicaltreaties/6 (243 words)

	"the People's Paths home page!" Living History - Backgrounder Historic Indian Treaties (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-08-17)
		An Indian treaty, as understood by the Government of Canada and the courts, is an agreement between the Crown and a specified group or groups of Indian people (Treaty First Nations) in which the parties created mutually binding obligations that were to be solemnly respected.
		This treaty, made in September 1760 during the final week of conflict between the French and the British, was in the form of a laissez-passer which guaranteed the Hurons safe passage to their village at Lorette, near Quebec.
		Treaties must be read not according to the technical meaning of their words, but in the sense that they would be naturally understood by the Indians.
	www.yvwiiusdinvnohii.net /history/INAC010705HistoricTreaties.htm (2239 words)

	Virtual Law Office: Bill Henderson
		The Robinson Treaties of 1850, in fact, were models for the subsequent "numbered Treaties" which extended from the Great Lakes watershed north to the 60th parallel, into the Mackenzie basin and west to the Continental Divide.
		The promise of schools on reserve in many Treaties is seen by First Nations as a commitment to provide education for their children; the promise of a medicine chest in one Treaty has been held by the courts to be a promise of health services.
		Treaties in Canada, thanks to section 35 of the Constitution Act, 1982 now have greater legal protection than ever before, and modern land claims settlements are Treaties for this purpose.
	www.utulsa.edu /law/classes/rice/TribalGovernment/Canadian_Law.htm (10431 words)

	Native Treaties (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-08-17)
		Between 1871 and 1877 seven treaties were signed between the Canadian government and various native tribes of the northwest ceding most of the western plains to the Canadian government (the Royal Proclamation of 1763 had stated that settlers could not occupy land that had not been surrendered to the Crown by the Indians).
		In the first treaties, the Native people gave up their land in return for reservations that allowed 65 hectares of land for each family of five, a small annual payment of money and some food rations.
		In later treaties native people insisted on receiving farm animals and machinery so that they could support themselves with agriculture after they had given up their nomadic way of life.
	collections.ic.gc.ca /nativepeoples/trea.html (874 words)

	[No title]
		Numbered Treaty Overview The Numbered Treaties - also called the Land Cession or Post-Confederation Treaties - were signed between 1871 and 1921, and granted the federal government large tracts of land throughout the Prairies, Canadian North and Northwestern Ontario for white settlement and industrial use.
		Numbered Treaties One to Five, 1871 - 1875 The first five Numbered Treaties covered areas in what was then part of the new province of Manitoba and the Northwest Territories - now parts of northwestern Ontario and southern Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta.
		The Revision of Treaties One and Two, 1875 Despite the fact the Aboriginals were to surrender their right to the land "forever," the first and second Numbered Treaties were renegotiated and changed in 1875.
	www.canadiana.org /citm/specifique/numtreatyoverview_e.txt (1468 words)

	Civilization.ca - First Peoples of Canada - Intergovernmental Relations
		Treaties in Canada began with the peace and friendship treaties of the eighteenth century.
		From 1871 through 1921, numbered treaties 1 through 11 were concluded across the Canadian West and in parts of the Yukon and Northwest Territories.
		Land cession and surrender treaties numbers 1 to 11 were signed between 1871 and 1921.
	www.civilization.ca /aborig/fp/fpz4d02e.html (316 words)

	Edited Hansard * Table of Contents * Number 208 (Official Version) (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-08-17)
		There are three groups of treaties: pre-Confederation treaties, numbered treaties, and modern treaties, which we designate as land claims.
		Numbered treaties are the treaties numbered 1 to 11, which were negotiated between 1871 and 1877 with first nations people across Canada.
		The third group of treaties is known as the modern treaties, or land claims as we know them today, which consist of land claims negotiated according to Canada's land claims policy established in 1973.
	www.parl.gc.ca /37/1/parlbus/chambus/house/debates/208_2002-06-18/han208_1640-e.htm (655 words)

	Native Claims (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-08-17)
		Treaty 3, known as the "Northwest Angle Treaty", was signed on October 3, 1873 with the Saulteaux, Ojibway and other Indians, and involved the extreme southwest of Ontario lying west of the Great Lakes and a small portion of southeastern Manitoba.
		Treaty 9 was signed on July 12, 1905 among the Crown Dominion of Canada, the Crown Province of Ontario, and Ojibway, Cree and others.
		Treaties which followed after the numbered treaties included a Treaty with the Chippewa Indians of Christian Island, Georgina Island and Rama, and a Treaty with the Mississauga Indians of Rice Lake, Mud Lake, Scugog Lake and Alderville.
	www.cyberus.ca /~ec086636/native_claims.htm (6935 words)

	CBC News In Depth: Aboriginal Canadians
		The "Numbered Treaties" – 11 of them – were signed between 1871 and 1921 as the Canadian government began to pursue settlement, farming and resource development in the west and north of the country.
		Treaty Number 6, signed in 1876 by the Plains and Woods Cree, is very similar to the first five, with two important exceptions.
		These treaties were signed between 1899 and 1921, largely in the northwest, with the exception of Treaty Number 9, which dealt with lands in northern Ontario.
	www.cbc.ca /news/background/aboriginals/treaties_summary.html (1152 words)

	Canada in the Making - Specific Events & Topics
		The Numbered Treaties - also called the Land Cession or Post-Confederation Treaties - were signed between 1871 and 1921, and granted the federal government large tracts of land throughout the Prairies, Canadian North and Northwestern Ontario for white settlement and industrial use.
		Treaty Nine was signed in 1905 and 1906, and dealt with lands in northern Ontario.
		Treaty Eleven was signed in 1921 and dealt with land in the Northwest Territories and the Yukon.
	www.canadiana.org /citm/specifique/numtreatyoverview_e.html (1525 words)

	Canada's First Nations: Treaty Evolution
		For each of the Prairie Treaties, numbered one to seven, historical debate has arisen regarding governmental and Native reasons for negotiating the treaties as well as their roles in the negotiation and subsequent interpretation of the agreements.
		Indian motivations in the time of the numbered treaties were primarily based on an attempt to protect Native culture, a search for a viable method of sustenance and protection of their land from settlers.
		The government felt that treaties and land settlements in desirable areas should be settled before the Indians realised the value of their lands to the Europeans, thereby ensuring that the government could procure cheap and favourable terms in the agreements.
	www.ucalgary.ca /applied_history/tutor/firstnations/reasons.html (1937 words)

	AMC Treaties (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-08-17)
		Following the Proclamation, the Crown concluded a number of land-cession agreements with the Aboriginals of present-day southern Ontario so that land would be available for the settlement of the United Empire Loyalists, and for the Crown's military allies, the Iroquois.
		The Manitoulin Island Treaty was negotiated by William McDougall and the Aboriginal leaders on the island.
		The fourteen Vancouver Island Treaties are sometimes referred to as the Douglas Treaties, after James Douglas the chief factor of Fort Victoria (Hudson's Bay Fort), who negotiated the purchase of approximately 358 square miles of land on Vancouver Island.
	www.manitobachiefs.com /treaty/history.html (1002 words)

	Student Handout 1.5 - Office of the Treaty Commissioner: FAQ
		Treaty 1, the Stone Fort Treaty, was concluded in Manitoba in 1871, with Treaty 2, the Manitoba Post Treaty, and Treaty 3, the North-West Angle Treaty, following in 1871 and 1973 respectively.
		Treaty 5, the Winnipeg Treaty, and Treaty 6, the Treaty of Fort Carlton and Fort Pitt, were negotiated in 1875 and 1876.
		The Office of the Treaty Commissioner shares this view, and is currently facilitating treaty table discussions between the Federation of Saskatchewan Indian Nations and the Government of Canada, with the Province of Saskatchewan sitting as an observer.
	www.sasked.gov.sk.ca /docs/social/law30/unit01/01_05_sh.html (1450 words)

	[No title]
		One example is the alleged opposition, in the Canadian context, between treaties of peace and friendship (eighteenth century and earlier) and so-called numbered treaties of "land surrenders" (especially from the second half of the nineteenth century on).
		This opposition is contradicted by Indigenous parties to numbered treaties, who consider that they are parties to treaties of peace, friendship and alliance and that they did not cede either their territories or their original juridical status as sovereigns.
		Closer scrutiny of the provisions of treaties concluded between Indigenous peoples and States also reveals that in most cases the object of such treaties is common in international law, whatever the historical period considered; thus such treaties deal with questions of war/peace, trade provisions, protection of the subjects/citizens of each signatory party, and so forth.
	www.utulsa.edu /law/classes/rice/UN_Stuff/study2a.htm (1802 words)

	Canadian Indian Treaties: A Guide to Print Resources at Priestly Law Library
		Treaties 1 to 7 cover the Prairies and north-western Ontario, and were negotiated between 1871 and 1877.
		Treaties 1 & 2 Between Her Majesty the Queen and the Chippewa and Cree Indians of Manitoba.
		Treaty no. 3 Between Her Majesty the Queen and the Saulteaux Tribe of the Ojibbeway Indians at the Northwest angle on the Lake of the Woods with adhesions.
	library.law.uvic.ca /Free_Legal/treaty.html (1076 words)

	Canada's First Nations: Treaty Evolution
		The numbered treaties signed between 1871 and 1877 in Western Canada have traditionally been presented as a move by a paternalistic government trying to safeguard the interests of the Indian bands.
		The terms of the numbered treaties signed between the Indians of the Prairies and the Government of Canada in the 1870s were significantly influenced by the intentions and understanding of both parties.
		Since the treaties were signed, historians have debated the extent to which the government was exercising a benevolent plan towards the Indians as well as the extent to which the Indians understood and participated in the treaty negotiations.
	www.ucalgary.ca /applied_history/tutor/firstnations/treaty.html (473 words)

	Windspeaker November 2005
		The "Gathering of Treaties 1 to 11" occurred in Edmonton on Sept. 28 and 29.
		Shannacappo said the treaty chiefs believe the federal government is trying to extinguish the numbered treaties and replace them with an arrangement that is more favorable to the Crown.
		The "Sovereignty, treaty relations and treaty implementation" resolution is three pages long and lists a variety of areas that fall under provincial jurisdiction that the officials working at the federal-AFN roundtable discussions are looking at.
	www.ammsa.com /windspeaker/articles/2005/wind-nov-05-1.html (1372 words)

	Canadian First Nations -- Manitoulin (1862), Robinson (1850) Treaties
		Unlike the numbered treaties -- this is not a trans-Canada railroad treaty.
		These earlier treaties are prior to the 11 numbered Western treaties that came about when the trans-Canada railway project was in the offing.
		This treaty diminishes an early one (1836) in which the whole of Manitoulin Island was to be reserved Indian land.
	www.kstrom.net /isk/maps/cantreaty/manitoulin.html (890 words)

	Consultation Requirements in the Post-Treaty Context (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-08-17)
		Treaty Number 8 was negotiated in 1899 and was adhered to by a number of bands that lived in what are now Alberta, Saskatchewan, British Columbia and the Northwest Territories.
		The Court found that the intention of the parties to the treaty included the acceptance of settlement and other uses of land that would restrict rights to hunt, “so long as sufficient unoccupied land would remain to allow them to maintain their traditional way of life”.
		As their treaty right to hunt did not extend to hunting on such land, the hunting limitations set out in the provincial Wildlife Act did not infringe their existing right and were properly applied to them (paragraph 67).
	www.hg.org /articles/article_860.html (3732 words)

	A History of Saskatchewan Treaties by Robin Brownlie (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-08-17)
		Treaty research has focused attention on crucial matters such as the gap (often quite broad) between the written version of a treaty and promises made by federal negotiators at treaty talks.
		The chapter on treaty implementation, while short, succinctly conveys the meanings attached to the agreements by Aboriginal people, and their intensive efforts to hold the government to its promises.
		The chapter on Treaty 10, for example, is rather meagre, partly because of a scanty historical source base.
	www.utpjournals.com /product/utq/711/arthur161.html (767 words)

	[No title] (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-08-17)
		The prevalence of these treaties and constructive arrangements means that many, indeed, a majority of First Nations and/or Inuit communities can legitimately lay claim to a relationship with Canada that is marked by a certain measure of solemnity, and by mutually binding obligations or expectations.
		There have been, as well, a number of very significant Supreme Court of Canada decisions on historic treaties which have informed - and given direction to - governments with respect to the substance of specific treaty rights, the manner in which such rights are to be dealt with, and the status of treaties themselves.
		Due to the sui generis nature of treaties between states and indigenous groups and the variety and complexity of treaties, agreements and arrangements, international monitoring and dispute resolution is not appropriate.
	www.unhchr.ch /indigenous/Canada-BP17.doc (5353 words)

	Alberta: How the West was Young - First Nations and Metis - Treaties
		Between 1871 and 1921, eleven "numbered" treaties were signed covering most of the Prairie provinces, northern Ontario and parts of British Columbia, Yukon and the North West Territories.
		In exchange for giving up their aboriginal title to the land and other rights First Nations people would be compensated through initial cash payments and annuities, along with promises of reserves, educational and farm assistance and other benefits.
		Most see the treaties as solemn, even sacred, pacts that represent an agreement to share resources and to establish a framework whereby aboriginal and non-aboriginal peoples could live together in the areas covered by treaties.
	www.abheritage.ca /alberta/fn_metis/treaties.html (469 words)

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