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Topic: Nuremberg Principles

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	Principles of International Law Recognized in the Charter of the Nurnberg Tribunal (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-21)
		Principles of International Law Recognized in the Charter of the Nürnberg Tribunal and in the Judgment of the Tribunal*
		Principle II The fact that internal law does not impose a penalty for an act which constitutes a crime under international law does not relieve the person who committed the act from responsibility under international law.
		Principle IV The fact that a person acted pursuant to order of his Government or of a superior does not relieve him from responsibility under international law, provided a moral choice was in fact possible to him.
	www.un.org /law/ilc/texts/nurnberg.htm (360 words)

	A New Court to Uphold International Criminal Law: The World Moves Forward without the United States, by David Krieger, ...
		Following the trials, the United Nations General Assembly adopted the Principles of Nuremberg, principles of individual accountability that were meant to serve as a standard and a warning to potential violators of international law, no matter how high their position.
		Principle two clarified that the perpetrator of a crime under international law was not exempted from responsibility by the fact that the crime was not subject to penalty under the internal law of his or her nation.
		The Principles of Nuremberg can now be made applicable to crimes committed in the Nuclear Age, and no longer will leaders of nations be able to hide from accountability for the most heinous of crimes under international law.
	www.wagingpeace.org /articles/2002/04/00_krieger_new-court.htm (856 words)

	The evolution of individual criminal responsibility under international law
		Principles III and IV provide that a person who acts in his capacity as head of State or as a government official and one who acts on the orders of the government or of a superior are not thereby relieved of responsibility.
		Principle IV of the ILC text modifies the approach: the individual is not relieved of responsibility “provided a moral choice was in fact possible to him”.
		The affirmation of the Nuremberg principles by the 1946 General Assembly resolution and their formulation by the International Law Commission were important steps toward the establishment of a code of international crimes entailing individual responsibility.
	www.icrc.ch /Web/Eng/siteeng0.nsf/iwpList174/911763EAA63170C0C1256B66005D85D0 (7604 words)

	War's Crimes and Punishments, Then and Now
		"Nuremberg was almost unique," said Lord Weidenfeld, the British publisher who took part in a panel debate today in Courtroom 600 that was the main event in Nuremberg's low-key commemoration of the trial.
		Specifically, the so-called Nuremberg principles, which were never codified as international law, declared that government leaders were to be held accountable for breaches of international law and that no one could plead not guilty to war crimes by saying they were merely following orders.
		For all its experience with Nazism's rise and fall, though, Nuremberg was not free from the passions and divisions that scoured Germany as the Berlin wall fell.
	www.writing.upenn.edu /~afilreis/Holocaust/nuremberg.html (674 words)

	Equipo Nizkor - The question of impunity in Spain and crimes under Franco.
		The principles recognised in the agreement signed in London on 8th August 1945 by the United States, France, the United Kingdom and the USSR - the said agreement was later also adopted by another nineteen countries, which therefore agreed to create an International Military Tribunal- are officially known as the "Principles of Nuremberg".
		This formulation of the principles of Nuremberg by the International Law Commission includes complicity in crimes against peace, war crimes and crimes against humanity as an international crime, that is to say, complicity in an act constituting a crime under International Law is itself a crime under International Law.
		During the Nuremberg Trials, French prosecutor François de Menthon described crimes against humanity as "crimes against the status of being human," motivated by the ideology of a "crime against the spirit" aimed at "sending humanity back to a state of barbarity." At Nuremberg the first trials for crimes against humanity would be heard.
	www.derechos.org /nizkor/espana/doc/impuspa.html (10464 words)

	Our duties to humankind: The Nuremberg Principles
		The following comes from the principles developed after the trial of Nazi war criminals, and is now considered to be part of international law and the standard under which the actions of nations, and the individuals that act under orders of national leaders, are to be judged.
		Principle I. Any person who commits an act which constitutes a crime under international law is responsible therefore and liable to punishment.
		Principle V. Any person charged with a crime under international law has the right to a fair trial on the facts and law.
	www.tomjoad.org /nuremberg.htm (467 words)

	Medicine & Global Survival (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-21)
		The principal message of the Nuremberg trials is that individuals are responsible for what they do, and will be held accountable for committing serious crimes under international law.
		At Nuremberg, these serious crimes included crimes against peace (that is, planning, preparing for, or participating in acts of aggressive warfare), war crimes, and crimes against humanity [1].
		The Nuremberg Principles were derived from the Charter of the Nuremberg Tribunal and its proceedings.
	www.ippnw.org /MGS/V4Krieger.html (2070 words)

	The September 1, 1987 Tragedy at Concord, CA Naval Weapons Station: Perspective of the People Invoking the Nuremburg ...
		Furthermore, under Nuremberg, complicity continues the crime and the citizen has a duty to make known the violations of law committed by his or her government and to do everything reasonable to stop those violations from continuing--even when ordered otherwise by a superior.
		The Nuremberg Principles are part of the body of law of the United States that require individual responsibility and duty to uphold the law even if superiors do not.
		Nuremberg Actions--Concord Campaign is a citizen's effort invoking the Nuremberg Principles, upholding international law by stopping the movement of munitions that are in furtherance of a U.S. policy violating international law and our own Constitution.
	www.brianwillson.com /evracnwstest.html (2647 words)

	Nuclear Files: Library: Treaties: The Nuremberg Principles, Commentary by January Godkin
		The Nuremberg Trials, as they would come to be known, were based on the premise of international law.
		The legacy of Nuremberg, however imperfect the trial and the ideals behind may have been, remains unfulfilled.
		While the UN International Criminal Tribunals for the former Yugoslavia and Rwanda, have begun to proceed with the ideals set out at Nuremberg in their prosecution of war criminals, there is still much that is needed.
	www.nuclearfiles.org /menu/library/treaties/nuremberg/trty_nuremberg-principles-commentary-godkin.htm (596 words)

	The International Criminal Court: Making the right choices - part I: Defining the crimes and permissible defences and ... (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-21)
		The preamble states the important principle of effectiveness, which should be a criterion for assessing each provision of the statute, and the principle that the court should be able to act when national criminal jurisdictions are not available or are ineffective.
		To be consistent with the principles of legality and to facilitate ease of understanding in the general public, the statute should annex the Genocide Convention as a schedule.
		However, the General Assembly never approved the formulation of those principles in the International Law Commission’s 1950 Nuremberg Principles requiring a connection to crimes against peace or a war crime.(178) Moreover, the ILC reiterated four years later that crimes against humanity were independent of crimes against peace and war crimes.
	t2web.amnesty.r3h.net /library/index/engior400011997?open&of=eng-385 (10236 words)

	documents_conference_laughland
		BRITISH writer John Laughland exploded the myth that the Hague tribunal is a modern equivalent of the Nuremberg trials of Nazi war criminals.
		The ICTY was a classic example of how the New World Order, as proclaimed by George Bush Sr in 1990, has “radically reformed” the legal basis of international relations in favour of powerful nations such as the United States, he explained.
		Nuremberg was legitimate because the Nazis had temporarily, but unconditionally, surrendered German sovereignty to the victorious allies at the end of World War II.
	www.free-slobo-uk.org /documents_conference_laughland (592 words)

	Prosecuting Tony Blair and others - Menu
		Attached to this Agreement was the Charter and Statutes for the establishment of an international military tribunal for the prosecution and punishment of the major German war criminals of the European Axis.
		Therefore, affirms the principles of international law recognised by the Charter of the Nuremberg Tribunal and in the judgement of the Tribunal”.
		On 2nd August 1950, the ILC Report together with the “Nuremberg Principles” were adopted by Resolution 488 of the Fifth General Assembly, again unanimously and without dissention.
	www.emlyn.org.uk /stopwar/rmanson/background/rlm-001.shtml (1114 words)

	Why We Must Punish Yassir Arafat (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-21)
		Upon the principle utility, if it ought at all to be admitted, it ought to be admitted in as far as it promises to exclude some greater evil.
		By codifying the idea that justice is peremptory, that it cannot be traded-off for reasons of political expedience or even for presumed conditions of peace, the Nuremberg obligations reflect perfect convergence between international criminal law and the law of the American Republic.
		According to Article 38(c) of the Statute of the International Court of Justice, international law derives in part from "the general principles of law recognized by civilized nations." This means nothing less than that the US Declaration of Independence and Bill of Rights represent an authoritative source of international legal norms.
	www.tzemach.org /fyi/docs/beres/mar01-02.htm (2282 words)

	Issues: International Law: Nuremberg Principles
		The basic premise of the principles is that no person, no matter what their office, stands above international law.
		Principle Vl The crimes hereinafter set out are punishable as crimes under; international law:
		Complicity in the commission of a crime against peace, a war crime, or a crime against humanity as set forth in Principles VI is a crime under international law.
	www.wagingpeace.org /menu/issues/international-law/start/un-nuremberg-principles.htm (306 words)

	George Bush and Nuremberg (Really) (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-21)
		The Principles, drawn up primarily by this United States, formed the legal basis for the prosecution of Nazi war criminals in the aftermath of World War II.
		Principle VI of the Nuremberg Principles lists three categories of crimes "punishable as crimes under international law".
		As such, the invasion of Iraq was "aggressive war", considered a "crime against peace" under the Principles of the Nuremberg Tribunal, which were themselves drafted by the United States of America.
	www.justabovesunset.com /id76.html (1138 words)

	Encyclopedia: War crime (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-21)
		International Humanitarian Law (IHL), also known as the law of war, the laws and customs of war or the law of armed conflict, is the legal corpus comprised of the Geneva Conventions and the Hague Regulations, as well as subsequent treaties, case law, and customary international law.
		War crimes are significant in international humanitarian law because it is an area where international tribunals such as the Nuremberg Trials have been convened.
		The Nuremberg Trials is the general name for two sets of trials of Nazis involved in World War II and the Holocaust.
	www.nationmaster.com /encyclopedia/War-crime (1459 words)

	JAMA1.htm (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-21)
		The trial produced the Nuremberg Principles, which recognize that there are crimes against peace, war crimes, and crimes against humanity, and that individuals can be punished for violating these crimes even if such violation is consistent with the laws of their own country, and even if they were "obeying orders." (8,9)
		In that voice, the court, through the Nuremberg Code, insisted that human rights in research be protected by a strict requirement that researchers acquire the informed, voluntary, competent, and understanding consent of research subjects, and that subjects retain the right to withdraw from research at any time.
		It is the legacy of Nuremberg and the Doctors Trial that physicians have special obligations to use their power to protect human rights and that medical ethics devoid of human rights become no more than hollow words.
	dcc2.bumc.bu.edu /LW/JAMA1.htm (2061 words)

	"An Exponential Peace Plan" and "Scales of Justice" (by John Mackesy) - Media Monitors Network (MMN) (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-21)
		Nuremberg Principles Articles VI and VII make it a Crime Against Peace and a Crime Against Humanity to "Conspire to engage in, wage or be complicit in the waging of a War of Aggression." Admit that American taxpayers are individually and collectively responsible for financing the carnage and suffering caused by this illegal war.
		If they do not have the Nuremberg Principle emblazoned in their minds, they should not be officers in the military.
		If they knew the Nuremberg Principles and went along with orders that were illegal under International Law, they should be scrutinized for war crimes justice.
	world.mediamonitors.net /content/view/full/7455 (2581 words)

	[No title]
		He drafted ten principles of ethics governing the use of human subjects in medical research.
		Although some of these codes include more detailed guidelines developed in the light of later experience, none adds substantively to the Nuremberg principles governing the use of human subjects in medical research.
		Building upon these principles, the Congress in 1962 amended the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, legally requiring, for the first time, that an investigator of a new drug must obtain the informed consent of an individual to whom the drug will be administered.
	www.va.gov /VISNS/VISN02/Research/forms/buf/IRB/Guidelines/Code_of_Nuremberg.doc (658 words)

	The Avalon Project : Charter of the International Military Tribunal
		The principle of rotation of presidency for successive trials is agreed.
		The first meetings of the members of the Tribunal and of the Chief Prosecutors shall be held at Berlin in a place to be designated by the Control Council for Germany.
		The first trial shall be held at Nuremberg, and any subsequent trials shall be held at such places as the Tribunal may decide.
	www.yale.edu /lawweb/avalon/imt/proc/imtconst.htm (1976 words)

	Crime against humanity
		A crime against humanity is an act of persecution against a group, so heinous as to warrant punishment under international law.
		The term was first used in the preamble of the Hague Convention of 1907, and subsequently used during the Nuremberg trials as a charge for actions such as the Holocaust which did not violate a specific treaty but were deemed to require punishment.
		Nuremberg Principles The principles set out at Nuremburg which underpin the definition of War Crimes and Crimes against humanity
	www.brainyencyclopedia.com /encyclopedia/c/cr/crime_against_humanity.html (256 words)

	B'NAI B'RITH ORATION From the Final Solution to the Stolen General:
		We are also meeting in remembrance and reminder of the Fiftieth Anniversary of the Nuremberg Trials and the Nuremberg Principles – of the Nuremberg Principles as symbol and substance – metaphor and message – of international humanitarian law, and as the source and inspiration of international human rights law, including the
		And, as it happens, this “double entendre” of Nuremberg – of jackboots and judgements – of Nuremberg Race laws and the Nuremberg Principles – finds parallel expression in the contemporary dialectics of the human rights revolution and counter –revolution; in the dialectics of international human rights law and the criminal violations of human rights.
		not the Nuremberg Principles – are the Nuremberg legacy.
	www.wej.com.au /adc/Oration_cotler.htm (6342 words)

	The Communitarian Network
		But some say that for soldiers such as her, this is no longer an adequate defense under the Nuremberg Principles.
		I can tell you, from firsthand experience, that unless one strongly believes that abusing prisoners is immoral, and these beliefs are reinforced by clear training, it is absurd to expect young people in combat to follow Nuremberg principles on their own.
		If soldiers must disobey orders-and draw on Nuremberg principles-to prevent torture, then something is very rotten, and it is not in Denmark.
	www.gwu.edu /~ccps/etzioni/B461.html (712 words)

	-Yeshiva University President
		Those participants - including former Nuremberg prosecutors, government officials, participants at tribunals in Rwanda, the former Yugoslavia, and Sierra Leone, and academics - analyzed the impact of the Nuremberg principles on the occasion of the 60th anniversary of the trials.
		A broad spectrum of participants —— including former Nuremberg prosecutors, government officials, participants at tribunals in Rwanda, the former Yugoslavia, and Sierra Leone, and academics —— attended “The Nuremberg Trials: A Reappraisal and Their Legacy,” in order to analyze the impact of the Nuremberg principles on the occasion of the 60th anniversary of the trials.
		Greville Janner, Member of the British House of Lords, was not at the Nuremberg trials, but at the age of 18 he was stationed at the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp.
	www.yu.edu /president/article.asp?id=100963 (934 words)

	Human Rights and Peace Law Docket
		Crimes against humanity: Atrocities and offenses, including but not limited to murder, extermination, deportation, imprisonment, torture, rape, or other inhumane acts committed against any civilian population, or persecutions on political, racial or religious grounds whether or not in violation of the domestic laws of the country where perpetrated.
		The U.N. General Assembly unanimously affirmed "the principles of international law recognized by the Charter of Nuremberg Tribunal and the judgment of the Tribunal." G.A. Res.
		The Principles are set forth in Dep't of the U.S. Army, Field Manual FM2710, The Law of Land Warfare sec.
	sunsite.berkeley.edu /meiklejohn/meik-peacelaw/meik-peacelaw-10.html (378 words)

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