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Topic: Observational learning

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	Anxiety Zone - Observational learning
		Observational learning or social learning is learning that occurs as a function of observing, retaining and replicating behaviour observed in others.
		Although observational learning can take place at any stage in life, it is thought to be particularly important during childhood, particularly as authority becomes important.
		Observational learning allows for learning without any change in behaviour and has therefore been used as an argument against strict behaviourism which argued that behaviour change must occur for new behaviours to be acquired.
	www.anxietyzone.com /glossary/observational_learning.html (428 words)

	the social/situational orientation to learning @ the informal education homepage
		Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people ha d to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do.
		Learning traditionally gets measured as on the assumption that it is a possession of individuals that can be found inside their heads… [Here] learning is in the relationships between people.
		Learning is in the conditions that bring people together and organize a point of contact that allows for particular pieces of information to take on a relevance; without the points of contact, without the system of relevancies, there is not learning, and there is little memory.
	www.infed.org /biblio/learning-social.htm (1307 words)

	What is this octopus thinking?
		"Observational learning" was thought to be evidence of intelligence and restricted to the "higher" mammals and birds.
		The debate about observational learning in octopuses is at the centre of one of the oddest challenges in neurobiology: the quest to understand the brain of the cephalopod, animals that include octopuses, squid, cuttlefish and the single- shelled nautilus.
		In the 1970s, Messenger discovered that the speed with which cuttlefish learn not to strike at prawns that are encased in a glass tube increases during the first four months of life, correlating precisely with the development of the vertical and superior frontal lobes.
	www.fortunecity.com /emachines/e11/86/cephpod.html (3781 words)

	Learning in Psychology (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-03)
		The proposal that there exist independent explicit and implicit learning systems is based on two further distinctions: (i) learning that takes place with versus without concurrent awareness, and (ii) learning that involves the encoding of instances (or fragments) versus the induction of abstract rules or hypotheses.
		The learning theory of Thorndike represents the original S-R framework of behavioral psychology: Learning is the result of associations forming between stimuli and responses.
		According to Guthrie, all learning was a consequence of association between a particular stimulus and response.
	www.psychology.org /links/Environment_Behavior_Relationships/Learning (1338 words)

	Joyce E. Goins
		Bandura has performed a great deal of work on social learning throughout his career and is noted for his social learning theory, which he has recently renamed, "Social Cognitive Theory." His theory focuses on overt behavior as well as the motivational factors and self-regulatory mechanisms that contribute to a person's behavior (Schultz and Schultz, 1998).
		For example, learning to drive a car is not the easiest thing to do, and watching a video in driver's education or observing another student-driver are not the same as actually driving.
		Second, observational learning is compatible with the functional and pragmatic spirit of American psychology.
	www.xula.edu /xulanexus/issue2/Goins.html (1616 words)

	[No title]
		Although observation learning is most commonly studied in operant/instrumental conditioning or discrimination learning, it is important to introduce the topic early in a survey of the basic Principles of Learning and it does indeed apply to classical conditioning.
		Observational learning would appear at first glance strongly to favor the cognitive interpretation of conditioning.
		Hence, although observational/vicarious learning is not dependent on special training, its importance is very significantly increased in organisms who have indeed been taught to profit from the experience of others.
	www.unm.edu /~quadl/Principles/PrI-Observational_Learning (729 words)

	Observational learning in hummingbirds Auk, The - Find Articles
		Learning abilities of Ruby-throated (Archilochus colubris), Broad-tailed (Selasphorus platycercus), and Rufous (S. rufus) hummingbirds were studied in the presence or absence of a knowledgeable tutor.
		Observational learning can lead to the rapid spread of a new foraging behavior, such as the opening of milk bottles by Tits (genus Parus) in Great Britain (Fisher and Hinde 1949, but see Sherry and Galef 1984, 1990).
		Studies of observational learning are most illustrative when the precise effects of the tutor on the subject's behavior can be quantified and interpreted in the context of the subjects' natural history (Alcock 1969).
	www.findarticles.com /p/articles/mi_qa3793/is_200107/ai_n8957184 (889 words)

	Animal Training at SeaWorld
		Operant conditioning is a type of learning in which behaviors are altered by the consequences which follow them.
		Observational learning is a term we use to describe how an animal learns by watching others.
		The learning process is solely dependent upon an animal's physical structure, particularly the nervous system, and the specific experiences the animal has.
	www.seaworld.org /infobooks/Training/atlearn.html (799 words)

	Cognitive Effort and Motor Learning
		Early theoretical views of motor learning suggested that the motor commands and the sensory feedback that resulted from the movement were all that needed to be stored in memory for learning to occur.
		Observation provided a means by which the perceptual blueprint could be acquired, and Sheffield's theory provided a rationale for the use of experts as optimal models.
		Although research suggests that observational learning does occur using expert models, the findings suggest that a novice who is learning a motor skill can also be an effective model.
	www.rugbycoach.com /club/skills/cognitive.htm (5300 words)

	Educational Psychology Interactive: Observational Learning (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-03)
		Observational or social learning is based primarily on the work of Albert Bandura.
		He and his colleagues were able to demonstrate through a variety of experiments that the application of consequences was not necessary for learning to take place.
		Rather learning could occur through the simple processes of observing someone else's activity.
	chiron.valdosta.edu /whuitt/col/soccog/soclrn.html (387 words)

	Ch. 8 - LEARNING (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-03)
		Especially since one of these three hypothesized kinds of learning is exactly the same as one of my three types, namely, observational learning, let us now take a look at the other two kinds, namely, classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
		She has learned that her mother's crouching is followed by hunting, and that hunting is sometimes followed by eating meat.
		More specifically, it learns that the lever is a satisfying object in its environment (contact with the lever leads to contact with food) and also that the skill involved in contacting the food is the pressing of a lever.
	members.aol.com /psychquery/PT8.html (2314 words)

	Vicarious Learning: Experience Distilled (tm) : Weblog (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-03)
		Observational Learning and Autism More often than not, when discussing the relative strengths of direct participation vs observational/vicarious participation, active/direct participation is seen to be superior.
		Sportsmanship and Vicarious Learning The role of Vicarious and Observational Learning in the promotion of aggressive behaviour was one of Bandura 's original studies into ' Social Learning Theory '.
		Observational Networks Within environmental planning and forecasting the development and set-up of the optimal 'Observational Network' from available data is crucial.
	www.vicariouslearning.com /blog/page/blog (779 words)

	Learning Styles (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-03)
		Observational learning is also known as social learning.
		Observational learning is a good way to educate a child.
		Constructivism is a philosophy of learning founded on the premise that, by reflecting on out experiences, we construct out own understanding of the world we live in.
	www.geocities.com /acoontz83 (665 words)

	Educational Theories (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-03)
		The purpose of learning is for an individual to construct his or her own meaning, not just memorize the "right" answers and regurgitate someone else's meaning.
		Since education is inherently interdisciplinary, the only valuable way to measure learning is to make assessment part of the learning process, ensuring it provides students with information on the quality of their learning.
		Therefore, a child's learning development is affected in ways large and small by the culture - including the culture of family environment - in which he or she is enmeshed.
	www.howe.k12.ok.us /~jimaskew/education/theories.htm (2407 words)

	Albert Bandura
		Observational learning is also known as imitation or modeling.
		Once a behavior is learned through attention and retention, the observer must posses the physically capabilities to produce the aggressive act.
		The biological preparedness of the individual to learn as well as the role of the brain in processing information from the social environment, are critical to learning theory, but they are ignored by the social learning theory.
	www.criminology.fsu.edu /crimtheory/bandura.htm (2515 words)

	OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-03)
		Observational learning is when one animal can watch the actions of another and learn from those actions.
		This may be as simple as learning the location of a food source or as complicated as learning a sequence of actions that needs to be taken to earn a reward.
		These birds learned to rob cream from the top of milk bottles during the early part of the 20th century, and the blue tits later adapted to the use of aluminum foil seals on the bottles, learning to tear them to access the cream.
	www.animalbehavioronline.com /observationallearning.html (457 words)

	SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY of Albert Bandura, Chapter 31
		Observation of another's response to the object is hearing a contented sigh when someone points the gun or spreads the butter on toast.
		Consistent with social learning theory, Bandura found that children exhibited more aggression when the adult models were rewarded for their attack on the Bobo doll than when they were punished.
		Bandura concludes that reinforcement doesn't affect the learning of novel responses, but it does "determine whether or not observationally acquired competencies will be put into use." He discovered that the same antisocial learning took place when the aggressor was a cartoon character (Herman the Cat), rather than a human model.
	www.mhhe.com /socscience/comm/bandur-s.mhtml (3598 words)

	Social learning theory - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		Sutherland’s model for learning in a social environment depends on the cultural conflict between different factions in a society over who has the power to determine what is deviant.
		Unlike Labeling Theory, Social Learning Theory actually supports the use of punishment which translates into longer sentences for those convicted, and helps to explain the increase in the prison population that began in the early 1970s (Livingston, 1996).
		“The specific class of behaviours which are learned and their frequency of occurrence are functions of the reinforces which are effective and available, and the rules or norms by which these reinforcers are applied” (Sutherland, 1947: 5-7).
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Social_learning_theory (1514 words)

	Learning_Theories
		Primary and conditioned reinforcers, shaping, and observational learning are among the principles that are discussed.
		The Commonwealth of Learning- The Commonwealth of Learning (COL) is an intergovernmental organisation created by Commonwealth Heads of Government to encourage the development and sharing of open learning/distance education knowledge, resources and technologies.
		Subsumption Theory - Ausubel's theory is concerned with how individuals learn large amounts of meaningful material from verbal/textual presentations in a school setting (in contrast to theories developed in the context of laboratory experiments).
	www.emtech.net /learning_theories.htm (3544 words)

	Funderstanding - Observational Learning
		Observational learning, also called social learning theory, occurs when an observer's behavior changes after viewing the behavior of a model.
		Learning by observation involves four separate processes: attention, retention, production and motivation.
		This process is influenced by characteristics of the model, such as how much one likes or identifies with the model, and by characteristics of the observer, such as the observer's expectations or level of emotional arousal.
	www.funderstanding.com /observational_learning.cfm (571 words)

	TIP: Theories (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-03)
		The social learning theory of Bandura emphasizes the importance of observing and modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others.
		Bandura (1977) states: "Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do.
		The highest level of observational learning is achieved by first organizing and rehearsing the modeled behavior symbolically and then enacting it overtly.
	tip.psychology.org /bandura.html (403 words)

	learning: social learning theory
		As a result of his observations, Bandura was convinced that learning does not take place solely through direct reinforcement.
		The type of learning is referred to as observational learning or vicarious learning because we learn by observing what happens to others.
		An important aspect of social learning theory is that a specific behaviour, besides merely producing an external outcome, also leads to a self-evaluative reaction.
	www.cultsock.ndirect.co.uk /MUHome/cshtml/psy/soclearn.html (505 words)

	Clinical Trial: Observational Learning in Stroke Patients
		This "observational training" - i.e., the repeated observation of a movement - is sufficient for normal individuals to learn a movement.
		In normal subjects, the learning of new hand movements initially relies on the automatic ability to elaborate a motor plan from the simple observation of movements performed by others.
		The purpose of this protocol is to determine the pattern of brain activations related to motor learning induced by observational training in stroke patients as compare to normal volunteers.
	clinicaltrials.gov /ct/show/NCT00083642;jsessionid=F538AEFC9E18675C7... (1096 words)

	Observational Learning (Bandura) (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-03)
		Observational learning means "learning from others" or "learning by watching".
		Important in a more social context it brings home the important idea that we do not exist in a vacuum, and as such learning cannot be as easily studied as behaviorism originally hoped.
		Modelling refers to the process by which we observe and imitate others in a particular behavior or set of behaviors.
	www.uccs.edu /~rsambroo/psy/psy1012/Learning/sld009.htm (163 words)

	ReCAPP: Professional Credits: Social Learning Theory Quiz
		observational learning, expectations, behavioral capabilities, self-efficacy, and reciprocal determinism.
		observational learning, expectations, behavioral capabilities, self-efficacy, reciprocal determinism, and reinforcement.
		allow educators to correctly apply the observational learning concept which is difficult to do with large groups.
	www.etr.org /recapp/ches/socialLearningquiz.htm (421 words)

	Albert Bandura (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-03)
		Bandura believes that it is better to learn by observing others and strongly supports modeling, which he believes could have as much of an impact on an individual as direct experience.
		OBSERVATIONAL (SOCIAL) LEARNING: Observational or social learning is based around a four step pattern.
		Here we learn about his basic concepts of observational learning, reciprocal determinism, self-efficacy, and ways in which self-efficacy is acquired.
	www.rblewis.net /technology/PSY306/bandura.html (393 words)

	Lab 5: Learning
		Go to "Principles of Learning in the Real World" at http://www.ablongman.com/html/psychplace_acts/cc/intro.html and read the material provided.
		When you are confident that you understand the information, answer each of the questions on the form and click "submit" to email this form to the professor.
		For each example, determine what type of learning is being described, and answer the questions as directed.
	mars.unionky.edu /caldwell/psy200/activity_learning.htm (618 words)

	Introduction to Learning - Part 2
		The learning theory that best accounts for changes in involuntary behaviors and cognitions is classical conditioning.
		Several learning theories may account for changes in various types of voluntary behaviors and cognitions.
		Social (Observational) learning accounts best for behaviors and cognitions that are learned by watching someone else do them and experience the consequences.
	www.gpc.edu /~bbrown/psyc1101/learning/learning2.htm (685 words)

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