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	Quantum mechanics - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		The quantum field theory of the strong nuclear force is called quantum chromodynamics, and describes the interactions of the subnuclear particles: quarks and gluons.
		However, the formulation of a complete theory of quantum gravity is hindered by apparent incompatibilities between general relativity, the most accurate theory of gravity currently known, and some of the fundamental assumptions of quantum theory.
		Quantum electrodynamics is a quantum theory of electrons, positrons, and the electromagnetic field, and served as a role model for subsequent quantum field theories.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Quantum_mechanics (5658 words)

	Introduction to quantum mechanics - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		Quantum mechanics (or more precisely quantum theory) is a physical science dealing with the behaviour of matter and waves on the scale of atoms and subatomic particles.
		Quantum mechanics is the basis of modern developments in chemistry, molecular biology, and electronics, and the foundation for the technology that has transformed the world in the last sixty years.
		Quantum mechanics began with the discovery that energy is delivered in packets whose size is related to the frequencies of all electromagnetic waves (and to the color of visible light since in that case frequency determines color).
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Basics_of_quantum_mechanics (9480 words)

	Wikinfo \| Quantum mechanics
		Quantum mechanics or quantum physics is a physical theory formulated in the first half of the twentieth century which successfully describes the behavior of matter at small distance scales.
		The quantum field theory describing electromagnetism is quantum electrodynamics; it is, at least in principle, capable of explaining chemical interactions as well as the interaction of matter and electromagnetic radiation.
		The quantum field theory describing the strong nuclear force is quantum chromodynamics, which describes the interactions of the subnuclear particles: quarks and gluons.
	www.wikinfo.org /wiki.php?title=Quantum_mechanics (1644 words)

	A Brief History of Quantum Mechanics
		Quantum mechanics forced physicists to reshape their ideas of reality, to rethink the nature of things at the deepest level, and to revise their concepts of position and speed, as well as their notions of cause and effect.
		Quantum theory permits the quantitative understanding of molecules, of solids and liquids, and of conductors and semiconductors.
		In the late 1940s a new approach to the quantum theory of fields, QED (for quantum electrodynamics), was developed by Richard Feynman, Julian Schwinger, and Sin-Itiro Tomonaga.
	www.4physics.com /phy_demo/QM_Article/article.html (4755 words)

	quantum theory - Chap 5
		In the early stages of the quantum research, from 1900 onwards, one could still think that the old classical structure could be maintained, while maybe adding some new assumptions to it, in order to account for the quantum results.
		Still, it is interesting to note that the new quantum mechanics, which was meant to correct the failure of the classical theories in describing the structure of atoms, also differs from them in its violation of the property of objectivity, as we mentioned in Chap.
		In this sense, quantum mechanics may give some justification to Meyerson's intuitions, according to which the basic mystery of atomic theory is somehow related to the basic mystery of the mind-body problem.
	bendov.info /heb/books/quantum/eng/5e.htm (1886 words)

	QUANTUM GRAVITY (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-03)
		Quantum Mechanics is a mathematical formalism developed on the basis of experimentation and observation, allowing the behavior of subatomic particles to be interpreted and analyzed with a high level of precision.
		The approach taken in the initial development of the QTG in Chapter 3, using the old quantum theory, was motivated in part by the abstract language of quantum mechanics and, especially, by the need to visualize the process, which would otherwise be impossible.
		Even though some passages of the theory may appear ingenuous at first sight, they are there for a good reason: the simple mathematics aims to show that it is possible to understand gravity as the residual of a nuclear force.
	www.geocities.com /rolfguthmann/QTG/qtg.html (958 words)

	Rudiments of Quantum Theory
		With Planck's bold suggestion of the quantum nature of light and Einstein's equally impressive explanation of the photoelectric effect in quantum terms, Bohr, who was working with Rutherford on the nuclear scattering experiments, took another step and developed a mathematical framework to explain the spectroscopy of the hydrogen atom.
		This came to be known as the "Old Quantum Theory" since its comparatively excellent results were nevertheless limited in their scope.
		A brief introduction to the mathematical basics of quantum mechanics and a look at a number of simple, model systems is effective preparation for the application of quantum ideas to atomic and molecular systems.
	www.cobalt.chem.ucalgary.ca /ziegler/chm373/rudiment/rudiment.htm (512 words)

	The quantum leap
		Surprisingly, when Einstein discussed the theory of photoelectric effect, all the details of the phenomenon were not yet clarified through experiment, though the experimental work had been going on since the original observation of the effect by Heinrich Hertz in 1887.
		The initial phase of quantum theory, which lasted from 1900 to 1924, is sometimes referred to as "old quantum theory".
		In contrast, the second regarded quantum mechanics as a complete theory of individual processes, according to which it is one and the same electron whose probability of being at a particular position is given by the quantum probability distribution.
	www.hinduonnet.com /fline/fl2210/stories/20050520004602200.htm (2666 words)

	quantumcomputers
		Because Quantum computing is a very controversial type of computing of which some say that it will never be realized in a practical way.
		A quantum computer is not simply to describe because the scientist are only developing theories and practical implementation since recent years.
		Polish mathematical physicist Roman Ingarden, in one of the first attempts at creating a quantum information theory, shows that Shannon information theory cannot directly be generalized to the quantum case, but rather that it is possible to construct a quantum information theory which is a generalization of Shannon's theory.
	www.thocp.net /hardware/quantumcomputers.htm (1448 words)

	Introduction
		The old quantum theory, resulting in Bohr's orbital model of the atom could point to certain real successes: Derivation of the Balmer formula, quantum numbers and selection rules for energy states in an atom, explanation of the periodic table and the Pauli exclusion principle.
		In the early 1920 's it was clear that the quantum theory as it then existed was unsatisfactory.
		The theory of quantum mechanics asserts that with every possibility for an event in nature to take place, there is a quantity called amplitude associated with each alternative.
	rugth30.phys.rug.nl /quantummechanics/intro.htm (896 words)

	Student Years, 1920-1927: The Old Quantum Theory (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-03)
		The quantum behavior of electrons in atoms contradicted not only the "classical" mechanics of Sir Isaac Newton, but also the classical electromagnetic theory, which was developed in the nineteenth century and was spectacularly successful for describing light and radio waves.
		In 1916, Sommerfeld enhanced the Bohr theory of the atom by introducing non-circular orbits, by allowing quantized orientations of the orbits in space, and by taking into account the relativistic variation in the mass of the electron as it orbited the nucleus at high speed.
		The Bohr-Sommerfeld quantum theory of the atom proved remarkably successful for the simplest case, a hydrogen atom (one electron orbiting a nucleus).
	www.aip.org /history/heisenberg/p05c_text.htm (475 words)

	Student Years, 1920 - 1927: The Old Quantum Theory
		According to the so-called old quantum theory, first enunciated by Bohr in 1913 and elaborated by Sommerfeld three years later, atoms consist of a tiny positive nucleus surrounded by negative electrons which orbit the nucleus like planets around a sun.
		Instead, as Bohr postulated but could not explain, each quantum orbit could be considered a "stationary state," with energy losses or gains occurring only when the electrons jumped between the stationary states.
		the Bohr theory of the atom by introducing non-circular orbits, by allowing quantized orientations of the orbits in space, and by taking into account the relativistic variation in the mass of the electron as it orbited the nucleus at high speed.
	www.aip.org /history/heisenberg/p05c.htm (495 words)

	The Old Quantum Theory
		Indeed, classically there should be no stable orbits at all!-- as noted in all histories of quantum theory.
		The electromagnetic field is a quantum system; so is the atom; the two are coupled to form one combined quantum system.
		Bohr himself extended the theory to ``hydrogenic'' atoms - atoms that consist of a core of tightly-bound electrons around the nucleus, and a single loosely-bound electron orbiting further out.
	math.ucr.edu /home/baez/spin/node3.html (680 words)

	JCE 2006 (83) 464 [Mar] The Old Quantum Theory for H₂⁺: Some Chemical Implications
		The "old quantum theory" generates eigenvalues dependent entirely on the properties of classical orbits.
		Since obtaining correct values from quantum theory or accurate approximate values from uniform semiclassical theory provides quantitative results, the thrust of any old quantum theory formulation is to aide interpretation of results.
		The principal goals are then to show (i) the applicability of the method; (ii) the success of the method and its interpretation in terms of bonding in the ground state; and (iii) the fundamental failure of the classical approach and how that failure must influence bonding.
	jchemed.chem.wisc.edu:8000 /journal/Issues/2006/Mar/abs464.html (307 words)

	The WKB Approximation
		The new quantum theory that was introduced by Planck, Bohr and Sommerfeld after the turn of the 20th century, now the "old" quantum theory, was based on classical (Newtonian) mechanics supplemented by arbitrary postulates.
		Wave mechanics is now called simply quantum mechanics, as it is no longer necessary to emphasize the difference from the Newtonian mechanics of the old quantum theory.
		The question of the relation of quantum and classical mechanics is a large and important one, of which the WKB approximation is only one part.
	www.du.edu /~jcalvert/phys/wkb.htm (2542 words)

	ELECTRO MAGNETIC QUANTUM GRAVITY, Avon, Ohio (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-03)
		It is manifestly compatible with Cellular Automata (CA) theory (ref. 1), and is based on a new theory of inertia (ref. 5) proposed by R. Haisch, A. Rueda, and H. Puthoff (which we modified and called Quantum Inertia).
		Their theory also resolves the problems and paradoxes of accelerated motion introduced in Mach's principle, by suggesting that the state of acceleration of the charged virtual particles of the quantum vacuum (with respect to a mass) serves as Newton's universal reference frame for the mass, which Newton called absolute space.
		Although he was one of the founders of the (old) quantum theory, he remained skeptical about the validity of the theory throughout his whole career.
	www.avonhistory.org /list/quant.htm (558 words)

	Einstein's Unknown Insight and the Problem of Quantizing Chaos - Physics Today August 2005
		Einstein illustrates his construction with the example of a point mass moving under the influence of a general central force—that is, with a potential energy that depends only on the radial distance from the center—in the plane perpendicular to the particle's conserved angular momentum.
		Based on the theory of the Hamiltonian transition to chaos developed in the 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s by Andrei Kolmogorov, Vladimir Arnold, Jürgen Moser, and others, a generic billiard such as the quadrupole shown in figures 3c and 3d exhibits a mixture of regular and chaotic motion.
		With his introduction of the photon concept in 1905, his clear identification of wave–particle duality in 1909, his founding of the quantum theory of radiation in 1917, and his treatment of the Bose gas and its condensation in 1925, Einstein laid much of the foundation of the theory.
	www.physicstoday.org /web_bin/pt/vol-58/iss-8/p37.shtml (4224 words)

	Omni - Theory of XRF
		As much of the nomenclature of XRF spectroscopy has its roots in the history of the theory of atomic structure, an understanding of the historical development is helpful.
		Once the fluorescence of a single atom is understood, the theory of XRF requires an examination of the interatomic effects on the fluorescent radiation.
		These interatomic effects are termed 'matrix effects', and account for the observed radiation from a sample undergoing fluorescence without account for surface scattering and instrument effects.
	www.omniinstruments.com /xrftheory.html (124 words)

	A Brief History of Quantum Mechanics
		Because quantum mechanics is important when applied to atomic phenomena, you might guess that investigations into questions like these would give rise to the discovery of quantum mechanics.
		The resulting ideas, now called "old quantum theory", were all of the same type: Classical mechanics was assumed to hold, but with the additional assumption that only certain values of a physical quantity (the energy, say, or the projection of a magnetic arrow) were allowed.
		His theory was remarkably successful in explaining the colors emitted by hydrogen glowing in a discharge tube, and it sparked enormous interest in developing and extending the old quantum theory.
	www.oberlin.edu /physics/dstyer/StrangeQM/history.html (4302 words)

	THEORETICAL PHYSICS: EINSTEIN AND QUANTIZING CHAOS
		With his introduction of the photon concept in 1905, his clear identification of wave-particle duality in 1909, his founding of the quantum theory of radiation in 1917, and his treatment of the Bose gas and its condensation in 1925, Einstein laid much of the foundation of the theory.
		One of the main obstacles is the disparity between the linearity of quantum theory and the nonlinearity of classical dynamics.
		A quantum-mechanical cliche is Schroedinger's cat, whose role is to dramatize the superposition of quantum states by being both alive and dead.
	scienceweek.com /2005/sw050902-6.htm (1547 words)

	Quantum Mechanics - Old Quantum Theory
		The fundamental theory of the motions of particles is called quantum mechanics.
		Its lack was first discovered by Planck in 1900, when he formulated the quantum existence of radiant or electromagnetic energy, and has now assumed the status of a physical law.
		In 1912 Debye used the quantum theory to explain the low temperature with specific heats in solids.
	www.light-science.com /oldtheory.html (654 words)

	The Math Forum - Math Library - Quantum Theory (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-03)
		Sorting out quantum chaos in the microwave lab: The rectangle and the (rounded) stadium have long served as geometric playing fields for theorists studying differences between regular and chaotic motion.
		In theory, quantum computations can be speeded up significantly by letting many quantum computers work together in parallel on data encoded as particles in an entangled quantum state.
		A discussion of the application of physics (particle physics, quantum theory, and statistical mechanics) to finance theory, with econophysicists attempting to break ground in Wall Street, and the possible underlying mathematical structure of market behavior.
	mathforum.org /library/topics/quantum (1542 words)

	The Hydrogen Atom, Then and Now
		Sommerfeld's quantum conditions stated that these three classical quantities were restricted to integer values (and in fact the collection of values given above).
		The modern equivalent of the old notion of ``stationary orbit'' is ``eigenstate of the energy operator''.
		The horizontal lines stand for basis vectors (or equivalently, stationary quantum states); height gives energy, and transitions are indicated by slanted lines.
	math.ucr.edu /home/baez/spin/node4.html (344 words)

	Slides4
		One of the major puzzles in experimental physical science near the end of the nineteenth century was the spectrum of light emitted by a "body" at different temperatures.
		Early attempts at explaining some serious puzzles in physics established what is now referred to as "old quantum theory".
		The density distributions or probability densities for the quantum mechanical particle-in-a-box are shown.
	www.andrew.cmu.edu /course/09-105/S98Slides4.html (757 words)

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