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Topic: Operation Crossroads

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	Operation Crossroads - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		Operation Crossroads was an atmospheric nuclear weapon test series conducted by the United States in the summer of 1946.
		The Crossroads tests were the fourth and fifth nuclear explosions (following the Trinity test and the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki).
		All CROSSROADS operations were undertaken under radiological supervision intended to keep personnel from being exposed to more than 0.1 roentgen (R) per day.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Operation_Crossroads (1273 words)

	DTRA Fact Sheet (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-07)
		Operation CROSSROADS, conducted in July and August 1946, was the first nuclear test series after World War II and the first ever in the ocean.
		Operation CROSSROADS was the largest nuclear test operation and at the time the largest U.S. peacetime military operation ever conducted, involving 45,400 men, 220 ships, and 160 aircraft.
		All CROSSROADS operations were undertaken under radiological supervision intended to keep personnel from being exposed to more than 0.1 rem per day (equivalent to the standard in 1946 for radiation workers in the United States).
	www.dtra.mil /press_resources/fact_sheets/print/index.cfm?factsheet=ntpr_crossroads.cfm (2825 words)

	Operation Crossroads: The Atomi... (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-07)
		Crossroads not only was a basis for continuing scientific research with nuclear energy, but also served as an excuse by the United States government to play with this new "toy" and how the civilian and military branches fought over controlling it.
		Crossroads was a nuclear catastrophe, probably equaled to that of Chernobyl.
		Operation Crossroads was not only the beginning of postwar atomic testing, but it also signaled things to come in the atomic age.
	plush-backpacks.net /prod/1557509190/Operation_Crossroads:_The_Atomi... (1475 words)

	Marcel_Crossroads
		Operation Crossroads consisted of two Atomic bomb tests carried out at the Bikini atoll in the Marshall Islands in the summer of 1946.
		The center of air operations, however, were at Kwajalein air base, about 200 miles east of Bikini.
		Roger Ramey, a pivotal character in the Roswell Incident, was in charge of the various plane crews at Operation Crossroads.
	roswellproof.homestead.com /Marcel_Crossroads.html (405 words)

	Pacific Proving Grounds - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		The "Baker" shot of Operation Crossroads in 1946 was an underwater shot.
		The first use of the Pacific Proving Grounds was during Operation Crossroads, the first nuclear testing done after the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
		Two fission bombs were detonated at the Bikini Atoll, one ("Able") from an altitude of 520 ft (158 m) on July 1, 1946, and another ("Baker") was detonated a depth of 90 ft (27 m) underwater on July 25.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Pacific_Proving_Grounds (638 words)

	Evan in the South Pacific: 2
		The stated purpose of the operation was to evaluate the effectiveness of atomic bombs for naval attacks.
		Crossroads was intended to draw a line in the sand (ocean), to demonstrate the efficacy of the world's ultimate weapon.
		Like most of the ships in Operation Crossroads she was equipped with a typical load of live munitions before the tests.
	www.whereisevan.com /sp00-2.html (2091 words)

	Cold War, Hot Nukes: Operation Castle 1954 (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-07)
		Operation Ivy in 1952 took the hydrogen bomb from theory to reality, escalating the nuclear arms race to a scale that threatened the entire planet.
		The "Operation Castle JTF Commanders Report," a short film recently declassified by the Department of Energy, exposes a relentless "ends justify the means" attitude towards nuclear testing, with little concern for the consequences.
		The Operation Castle film shows the 82 inhabitants of Rongelap and the 150 inhabitants of Utrik being evacuated, while the narrator describes radiation levels at Utrik as "relatively light." Everyone exposed, according to the narrator, was given a "complete physical examination" and "every effort was made to assure their comfort and well-being."
	www.parascope.com /gallery/galleryitems/hotNukes/hotNukes06.htm (1326 words)

	Exploratory Essays Research Papers - The Controversy of Operation Crossroads: A Post WWII Nuclear Weapons Test
		Brett M. Condon in his paper, "The Controversy of Operation Crossroads: A Post-WWII Nuclear Weapons Test," describes the post World War II tests of the atom bomb on the island of Bikini Atoll and the shocking mistakes made by the U.S. government and Navy during the tests.
		It seems logical that in the case of such a unique event as deadly and significant as the Operation Crossroads, that the President would inform the public of the severity of the situation, and yet the public attitude toward the tests doesn't reflect that.
		In the case of the Crossroads test at Bikini, I think it is obvious that whatever benefit the scientific information that was ultimately garnered by American scientists might have had for the United States, it was not worth the death and additional injury to tens of thousands of sailors.
	www.123helpme.com /view.asp?id=19943 (2639 words)

	INS news_126 (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-07)
		Crossroads International is the latest in a series of nine anti-smuggling efforts known as Operation Disrupt, which have been conducted over the past five years.
		Operation Crossroads International is one of many operations designed to counter the increase in international migrant trafficking.
		This latest operation is part of a larger INS initiative, known as Global Reach, which was launched four years ago to strengthen the agency’s presence overseas to combat the increasing global problem of migrant smuggling.
	www.rapidimmigration.com /www/news/news_126.html (445 words)

	The Nuclear History Site/Testing Page (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-07)
		Crossroads was the first test series conducted in the Marshall Islands and the first since Trinity.
		Crossroads was to be well covered by the media, a contingent of 131 newspaper, radio and magazine reporters from the United States and a number of other countries were invited.
		Crossroads was to be the first weapons effects test series, intended to determine the effect of nuclear weapons on objects as opposed to testing a new weapon design.
	nuclearhistory.tripod.com /testing.html (10797 words)

	Operation Crossroads-Meeting the Bomb at Close Quarters-Part "1" (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-07)
		Operation Crossroads was the bright idea of Lewis Strauss, an aide to Secretary of Navy James Forrestal, and later Chairman of the US Atomic Energy Commission.
		While Operation Crossroads was designed to measure the impact of atomic weapons on naval vessels, the primary purpose of Operation Sandstone was to study the weapons themselves and the improvements made in their design.
		The global media coverage of Operation Crossroads, the presence of photographers from all over the world, and the fact that the explosions were broadcast live on radio around the world distinguished them from all other tests subsequently conducted.
	sandysq.gcinet.net /uss_salt_lake_city_ca25/crosroad.htm (4535 words)

	Crossroads Africa
		The six weeks as a member of a Crossroads work camp team are designed to provide an immersion in the culture of the host community.
		All Crossroads projects are community-initiated, and the teams live and work with hosts who have designed the project.
		The Crossroads summer is an intense experience, as ideas are exchanged within the team, and between participants and their hosts.
	www.dean.usma.edu /sosh/Activities/AIAD/IRCP/crossroads.htm (341 words)

	SUNY Potsdam: Operation Crossroads Africa (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-07)
		Operation Crossroads Africa was established in 1957 to encourage young North Americans to work at the grassroots level with young Africans.
		Mazzeo is a former group leader and administrator for Operation Crossroads Africa, and currently, an adjunct professor of Africana Studies at SUNY Potsdam.
		Walker-Smith served with Operation Crossroads Africa, as director of projects in Sudan, Sierra Leone and Lesotho.
	www.potsdam.edu /news/2004/crossroads_africa.html (336 words)

	Mortality of Veteran Participants in the Crossroads Nuclear Test (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-07)
		A new study by the Institute of Medicine (IOM) reveals that Navy personnel who served in Operation Crossroads have died at a 4.6 percent higher rate than a comparable group of sailors who were not involved in the tests.
		The report says that even those Crossroads participants believed to have been exposed to the highest radiation doses because of their roles in the tests have not suffered from an unusually high incidence of cancer or leukemia.
		In the case of Crossroads, however, the latter effect is likely to be a minor one, since nearly all of the participants in the tests have been found and studied.
	www4.nas.edu /news.nsf/6a3520dc2dbfc2ad85256ca8005c1381/c50b4e062848802085256ca70072daf8?OpenDocument (834 words)

	Crossroads
		When Operation Crossroads was conceived in 1945, there had been three nuclear explosions.
		Since World War II had ended shortly before the Crossroads operations, a wealth of surplus war equipment was available for exposure to nuclear tests.
		The rigidly mounted diaphragm deformed in proportion to the impulse propelling the structure.
	www.hevanet.com /refugee/cross.htm (2787 words)

	[No title] (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-07)
		Those readers who may be required to engage in direct efforts associated with the sampling of clouds will gain an understanding of the over-all complexity of the sampling mission and will realize the importance of their specific tasks or missions.
		With drones, the "beeper" pilot aimed the aircraft toward the atomic cloud and the sample was obtained by pot-luck.
		Airmen servicing an aircraft, however, would probably keep their hands in more or less constant motion during the operation and would not receive as much radiation as was recorded on the meters and film badges.
	www.gwu.edu /~nsarchiv/radiation/dir/mstreet/commeet/meet6/brief6/tab_f/br6f1k.txt (2323 words)

	IOM Mortality of Veteran Participants in the CROSSROADS Nuclear Test (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-07)
		Mortality experience was evaluated for the approximately 40,000 U.S. Navy personnel who participated in Operation CROSSROADS, a 1946 atmospheric nuclear test series that took place in the Bikini Atoll in the Marshall Islands.
		To judge whether that mortality experience was influenced by CROSSROADS participation, those personnel were compared to a control group assembled to be similar to the participants in all ways (age, pay grade, military experience, time of service, location of service) possible except for the Operation CROSSROADS participation.
		A roster of Operation CROSSROADS participants was assembled and provided to the IOM committee, which found in a validation study that the final roster captured between 93 and 99% of participants.
	www.iom.edu /view.asp?id=12436 (805 words)

	Summer Service Learning Opportunities - Lutheran World Relief (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-07)
		Lutheran World Relief and Operation Crossroads Africa are now working together to provide service-learning opportunities for young Lutherans and students at Lutheran colleges.
		While Crossroads is not a traditional study-abroad program, many participants arrange with their colleges to receive 5-10 semester credits.
		Participants in Operation Crossroads must have an interest in Africa, a willingness to challenge their values, a strong desire to learn from others, good communication stills, and openness to different lifestyles, beliefs, and values.
	www.lwr.org /jobs/crossroad.asp (313 words)

	RSH -- Table of Contents - Data 1.0 - 1.2.5.1.3 (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-07)
		In the IOM study, the death certificates and other records of 40,000 servicemen who participated in Operation Crossroads, a nuclear bomb exercise at Bikini Atoll in the Marshall Islands, were examined.
		"For those servicemen who had participated in Operation Crossroads the all-cause mortality was significantly higher than in controls (RR= 1.046, 95% CI 1.020–1.074, p<0.001) but the relative risk of death from cancer was not significantly increased in the ‘atomic veterans’ compared with controls (RR=1.014, 95% CI 0.96–1.068, p=0.26).
		Although the leukaemia mortality rate was higher among the Crossroads’ veterans (RR=1.020, 95% CI 0.75–1.39), again the increase was not statistically significant (p=0.90).
	cnts.wpi.edu /rsh/Data_Docs/1-2/5/1/12512mc96.html (391 words)

	Key Issues: Nuclear Weapons: Issues: Testing: Crossroads, Final Report
		As a result of carefully planned operating procedures and radiological safety measures, no casualties resulted from exploaion or radiation during, or after, either test and casualties from other causes were remarkably few.
		It is to be noted that the target array at Bikini did not, in either of the tests, represent any ordinary pattern of ship anchorage used by the Navy except in the case of surplus naval and merchant vessels anchored in close proximity in dead storage.
		Rather, the ships were arranged in accordance with the CROSSROADS directive to insure graded damage from sinking to negligible, and with the hope that a majority would remain afloat, so that data and instruments might be recovered.
	www.nuclearfiles.org /menu/key-issues/nuclear-weapons/issues/testing/crossroads-final-report_1947-06-30.htm (8173 words)

	Operation Crossroads: Bikini Atoll: Naval Art form the Atomic Bomb Test
		Operation Crossroads was an atmospheric nuclear weapon test series conducted in the summer of 1946 at Bikini Atoll in the Marshall Islands.
		In contrast to all later atmospheric nuclear tests, a large media contingent was present for the two Crossroads detonations.
		The darker-colored stem is composed of surface material and water vapor drawn upward by the fireball.
	www.history.navy.mil /ac/bikini/bikini1.htm (626 words)

	Operation Crossroads, Nuclear Tests at Bikini
		Operation Crossroads was an atmospheric nuclear weapon test series conducted in the summer of 1946.
		ABLE operations went smoothly except that the test weapon was dropped between 1,500 and 2,000 feet (457 and 610 meters) off target.
		Finally, a formal resurvey of Bikini Atoll was conducted in the summer of 1947 to study long- term effects of the CROSSROADS tests.
	www.history.navy.mil /faqs/faq76-1.htm (1152 words)

	Atomic Tests
		The series consisted of two detonations, each with a yield of 23 kilotons: the first was ABLE detonated at an altitude of 520 feet (158 meters) on 1 July followed by BAKER detonated 90 feet (27 meters) underwater on 25 July.
		During "Operation Crossroads" SUMNER operated as a part of Task Group 1.7, Destroyer Surface Patrol Group.
		In the last four, five months we've found definite proof that was hidden in the vault of a library of one of the Los Angeles branches, of the men that were in Operation Crossroads.
	www.dd-692.com /atomic.htm (3955 words)

	Operation Crossroads Danger Ignored
		The documents -- memorandums and reports compiled by the military during two atomic tests code-named Operation Crossroads -- contradict the longstanding Pentagon contention that exposure was minimal and posed no serious health risk to those who witnessed the blasts.
		The material was discovered this year in the library of the University of California at Los Angeles by Anthony Guarisco, a Navy veteran who served at Operation Crossroads and who suffers from a degenerative spinal condition, heart disease and disorders of the kidneys, bladder and prostate.
		During Operation Crossroads, two 20-kiloton bombs were exploded, one in midair and the other under water, to test their effect on an 84-ship unmanned target fleet and to determine whether the ships could be decontaminated and returned to service after the blasts.
	www.aracnet.com /~pdxavets/danger.htm (621 words)

	histry_testing
		Operation CROSSROADS, in 1946, was the first test series, consisting of an air and underwater detonation at Bikini atoll in the Marshall Islands using an array of target ships.
		CROSSROADS was the first large-scale weapons effects test, and did not include explosions of new weapons types; the two CROSSROADS bombs were drawn from the U.S. nuclear stockpile, which in 1946 consisted of only nine implosion-type cores.
		Operation SANDSTONE in 1948 included three tower-mounted devices detonated at Eniwetok atoll; these shots tested levitated composite cores for the new MK 4 weapon.
	uscoldwar.com /histry_testing.htm (1298 words)

	Chapter 2: 300,000 GIs Under the Mushroom Clouds, "KILLING OUR OWN", 1982
		"Operation Crossroads would have drawn 120 senators and representatives, a record-breaking number for Congressional junkets, away from Washington for six weeks and thus endangered the Administration's legislative program." At stake were proposals for extension of the peacetime draft, military appropriations, and measures to boost development of atomic energy.
		Operation Crossroads veterans were to recall, sometimes bitterly, that they were provided no special cleanup garb as they scrubbed the contaminated decks.
		For participants at Operation Crossroads the pair of twenty-three-kiloton nuclear detonations were only the start of their hazardous ordeals.
	www.ratical.org /radiation/KillingOurOwn/KOO2.html (12315 words)

	Atomic Tests: Operation Crossroads, Pacific Proving Grounds
		he story of the Crossroads tests as once secret documents reveal, and history has recorded, is that, the U.S. Navy stationed itself in close proximity for the sudden release of the new atomic genie.
		Jack Jordan a Radio Operator stationed aboard the USS Wharton, sailed into ground zero shortly after the Baker shot and the ship broke down stranding the crew in the intensely radioactive lagoon.
		An insightful excerpt from the book Operation Crossroads, by Johnathan M. Weisgall shows how the comfortable theories created in the calm, academic atmosphere of the weapons laboratories, turned into a real-life nightmare of military application for the soldiers, thr sailors and the chief radiological safety officer, Col. Stafford Warren of Operation Crossroads.
	www.aracnet.com /~pdxavets/crossroa.htm (1404 words)

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