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Topic: Opium trade

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	Opium Wars - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
		The British began manufacturing opium in India in significant quantities starting in the mid-18th century, learning the art from the Mughal state, which had traded in opium since at least the reign of Akbar (1556-1605), and began an illegal trade of opium for silver in southern China.
		He attempted to circumvent the restrictive Canton Trade laws, which forbade direct contact with Chinese officials, and was turned away by the governor of Macao, who promptly closed trade starting on September 2nd of that year.
		In March of 1839, a new commissioner, Lin Zexu was appointed to control the opium trade at the port of Canton by the emperor.
	en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Opium_War (1184 words)

	EH.Net Encyclopedia: Economic Histories of the Opium Trade
		While there are many examples of the use of opium as an instrument of state power, perhaps the two most well-known examples are the role of opium in trade relations, and the use of opium as a source of revenue for the state.
		In the area of drugs and state power, after opium and heroin were banned in the first half of the twentieth century, in a number of instances, criminal syndicates took the trade over from the states that had once controlled it.
		And, because accurate information about opium is extremely difficult to come by in the present regime because the drug is illegal, historical data dating back to a time when opium was consumed legally and openly is of particular importance in the debates surrounding the history and management of the problem of addiction.
	eh.net /encyclopedia/article/chandra.opium (2283 words)

	Ch'ing China: The Opium Wars
		This trade had produced, quite literally, a country filled with drug addicts, as opium parlors proliferated all throughout China in the early part of the nineteenth century.
		His express purpose was to cut off the opium trade at its source by rooting out corrupt officials and cracking down on British trade in the drug.
		He destroyed all the existing stores of opium and, victorious in his war against opium, he composed a letter to Queen Victoria of England requesting that the British cease all opium trade.
	www.wsu.edu:8080 /~dee/CHING/OPIUM.HTM (1237 words)

	Opium Use
		Downing elucidated the action of opium in all those countries in which it is habitually consumed, and fully proved that all the arguments produced against the use of spirits applied with tenfold force against the use of opium...Dr. J.
		With opium as free and open as it was, it hard to believe that none of the rich classes were not abusing it too.
		Opium use, was not regarded as a problem, until it became apparent that the working-classes were clearly abusing the substance.
	www.gober.net /victorian/reports/opium.html (2298 words)

	Opium (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-08)
		Opium is a narcotic drug which is obtained from the unripe seed pods of the opium poppy (Papaver somniferum L. or the synonym paeoniflorum).
		To harvest opium, the skin of the ripening pods is scored by a sharp blade.
		In the 19th century, the smuggling of opium to China from India, particularly by the British, was the cause of the Opium Wars.
	www.worldhistory.com /wiki/O/Opium.htm (956 words)

	Modern Era
		Trade between China and the West was carried on in the guise of tribute: foreigners were obliged to follow the elaborate, centuries-old ritual imposed on envoys from China's tributary states.
		Despite this attitude, trade flourished, even though after 1760 all foreign trade was confined to Guangzhou, where the foreign traders had to limit their dealings to a dozen officially licensed Chinese merchant firms.
		Trade was not the sole basis of contact with the West.
	www-chaos.umd.edu /history/modern.html (1113 words)

	The Chinese Opium Wars
		In England, where opium was legal, the cause of the exceptionally high infant mortality rate in one Lancashire town was discovered to be a concoction, called ``Godfrey's Cordial,'' a cough syrup containing opium which was given to babies, often in lethal doses.
		He argued that opium was a legitimate product, the same as any other commodity, that the objective laws of the ``invisible hand'' must be allowed to determine all economic activity, and anything which stood in the way, such as national governments, were an obstacle which must be removed.
		Opium was widely used in Britain itself, even by the Royal Family, as shown by revelations that Queen Victoria's court frequently ordered opium from the royal apothecary at Balmoral.
	members.tripod.com /~american_almanac/opium.htm (6363 words)

	Karl Marx in New York Daily Tribune (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-08)
		Besides its negative result, the first opium-war succeeded in stimulating the opium trade at the expense of legitimate commerce, and so will this second opium-war do if England be not forced by the general pressure of the civilized world to abandon the compulsory opium cultivation in India and the armed opium propaganda to China.
		Opium was legally admitted in China on the payment of a duty of about $3 per chest, as a medicine; the Portuguese, who brought it from Turkey, being its almost exclusive importers into the Celestial Empire.
		The opium monopoly was established in India; while the Company's own ships were hypocritically forbidden from trafficking in the drug, the licences it granted for private ships trading to China containing a provision which attached a penalty to them if freighted with opium of other than the Company's own make.
	www.marxists.org /archive/marx/works/1858/09/20.htm (910 words)

	History of the Opium Trade in China
		Opium was now contraband, but the fact had no effect on the quantity introduced into the country, which rose to 5,000 chests in 1820; 16,000 chests in 1830; 20,000 chests in 1838, and 70,000 chests in 1858."
		Seeing therefore that the opium trade was to be forced upon her, and that her people were doomed to degradation, she decided to plant poppies herself.
		Opium shops, licensed by foreign governments, are always ready to supply her people with the forbidden drug.
	www.druglibrary.org /schaffer/history/om/om15.htm (1546 words)

	Opium Wars
		The sale of opium had been made illegal in China in 1800, but the fl-market narcotics trade flourished in defiance of the law, and there were an estimated two million Chinese opium addicts.
		On March 10, 1839, Lin proclaimed that the opium trade would no longer be tolerated in Canton, and he began arresting known opium dealers in the local schools and naval barracks.
		He advised the spirit that he “should shortly be dissolving opium and draining it off to the great ocean,” and suggested that all sea creatures should retreat to deeper water “to avoid being contaminated,” until the opium was completely run off.
	www.oldnewspublishing.com /opium.htm (2545 words)

	China: Controlling the Opium Trade
		Although opium had long been used in China, as elsewhere, for its pain-killing medicinal purposes, it was only in the early eighteenth century, consequent upon the increase in foreign trade with European merchants that the evil effects of its misuse came to the notice of officials.
		At first the lead in what was now to become an illegal trade was taken by the Portuguese, but these were displaced by British merchants in the latter stage of the eighteenth century, by which time well over 1,000 chests per annum were being smuggled in.
		If the smugglers dare to smuggle opium into the Interior and are discovered, then the officials are ordered to question thoroughly as to where the opium came from and from whom the smugglers bought it.
	web.jjay.cuny.edu /~jobrien/reference/ob56.html (1133 words)

	Opium Trade Thriving in Democratic Afghanistan - U.N.
		The ''opium economy'' in Afghanistan is an intensely complex phenomenon, intermingled with the country's history, political structure, civil society and economy.
		The opium trade was de-facto legal in Afghanistan before and throughout the Taliban government.
		In January 2002, the government of Hamid Karzai, which was installed by the U.S. administration, banned the opium trade.
	www.hempfarm.org /Papers/Opium_in_Afghanistan.html (600 words)

	A Short History of the Opium Wars
		Most opium came from Turkey or India, and in 1800 its import was forbidden by the imperial government.
		The balance of trade turned against the Chinese in the 1830s, and the British decided to force the issue of increased trade rights.
		In the spring of 1839 Chinese authorities at Canton confiscated and burned the opium.
	www.druglibrary.org /schaffer/heroin/opiwar1.htm (702 words)

	Opium Trade and Environment
		From that time, raw cotton and opium from India and Burma had become the staple British imports into China, in spite of the fact that opium was prohibited entry by imperial decree.
		According to the Australian Parliament Committee of Foreign Affairs' report in 1995, Burma's narcotics trade was protected at the highest level of the government and the government covered areas of responsibility for transport, protection and patronage; and as a matter of policy, either explicit or covert, in order to raise government revenue.
		Opium trade is also contributing the rapid spread of AIDS whether in regional or global.
	www.american.edu /projects/mandala/TED/opium.htm (3147 words)

	China: The First Opium War (1840-42) (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-08)
		Quite apart from the physical dangers to native Chinese of opium smoking, there was, particularly since 1830 or thereabouts, the considerable economic damage caused by the drainage of cash silver from the country to pay for the illegal imports.
		The trade had become so pervasive (millions were addicted and corruption was rife among customs officials) that a lively discussion now took place among Chinese officials as to the advisability of legalizing the drug and, at least, bring the trade under the normal purview of the customs department.
		And it is specially to be understood that proof of British property and value of all British owned opium, surrendered to me agreeable to this notice, shall be determined upon principles, and in a manner hereafter to be defined by Her Majesty's Government.
	web.jjay.cuny.edu /~jobrien/reference/ob36.html (445 words)

	opium trade -- Encyclopædia Britannica
		The British used the profits from the sale of opium to purchase such Chinese luxury goods as porcelain, silk, and tea, which were in great demand in the West.
		The first Opium War (1839–42) was between China and Britain, and the second Opium War (1856–60), also known as the “Arrow” War, or the Anglo-French War in China, was fought by Britain and France against China.
		It was more than a dispute over the opium trade in China; it was a contest between China as the representative of ancient Eastern civilization and Britain as the forerunner of the modern West.
	www.britannica.com /eb/article-9105757?tocId=9105757&query=cultivation (879 words)

	The Opium War and the Opening of China
		This extended essay, "Opium War and the Opening of China", aims to examine the effects of the Opium War on the opening of China.
		The volume of the trade and the prices as well as the personal activities of Western merchants were also regulated by the Gong Hang, which in turn was responsible to the Governor-General of Liangguang.
		As trade grew, the West found themselves to have a large and rising trade deficit with China.
	historyliterature.homestead.com /files/extended.html (4167 words)

	Monthly Review: Britain's opium wars - fact and myth about the opium trade in East
		The smuggling of opium into China was by the 1830s a source of huge profits, played a crucial role in the financing of British rule in India and was the underpinning of British trade throughout the East.
		It was one corner of an Eastern triangular trade that mirrored the eighteenth century Atlantic slave trade.
		By the end of the 1830s a sixth of British overseas trade was with China and nearly two-thirds of that trade was in opium.
	www.findarticles.com /p/articles/mi_m1132/is_n5_v49/ai_20039205 (1298 words)

	Opium Trade Booms In 'Basket-Case' Afghanistan
		The Telegraph - UK The opium harvest in Afghanistan this year will be one of the biggest on record, the Foreign Office said yesterday, and it has triggered a flood of heroin on Britain's streets.
		At the time of the invasion, Mr Blair said: "We act because the al-Qa'ida network and the Taliban regime are funded in large parts on the drugs trade 90 per cent of all heroin sold in Britain originates from Afghanistan.
		The country is struggling to maintain a democratic veneer, amid sporadic violence, but meanwhile, the strength of the heroin trade shows no sign of being cut back.
	www.rense.com /general54/bask.htm (908 words)

	BBC NEWS \| World \| South Asia \| Quandary of Afghan opium industry
		He has promised a "holy war" against the opium trade, which he describes as a "disgrace" to his nation.
		A more "enlightened approach" is needed, he argues - something like that followed by Thailand in dealing with its illegal opium trade in the 1980s - a policy in which Mr Brandenberg was himself involved.
		In any case, the opium trade was always small in relation to the rest of the Thai economy.
	news.bbc.co.uk /1/hi/world/south_asia/4312557.stm (987 words)

	Opium Wars
		In 1839, China enforced its prohibitions on the importation of opium by destroying at Guangzhou (Canton) a large quantity of opium confiscated from British merchants.
		The wars of the poppies; Leslie Marchant sees the Opium Wars as a philosophical clash between two cultures and two notions of government and society.
		Opium made easy: one gardener's encounter with the war on drugs.
	www.infoplease.com /ce6/history/A0836734.html (452 words)

	The Maritime Heritage Project: Maritime History of Gold Rush Ships, Captains, Passengers, News - Opium
		By 1848, 40,000 chests of opium were stored in Hong Kong, and 75% of India's opium was traded through Hong Kong at a value of six million pounds per annum.
		This trade is carried on under the authority and regulations of the East India Company, and sanctioned by the direct legislation of the Imperial Parliament at home, notwithstanding it is a contraband trade, and forbidden by the laws of China under the most severe penalties.
		The most astounding fact of the opium trade needs yet to be specified, viz: that christian sensibilities have not yet been adequately roused in relation to its iniquities and horrors.
	www.maritimeheritage.org /newtale/opium.html (1271 words)

	All's well with Afghanistan opium trade
		says the opium based drug trade is damaging the country's economy, reputation and national security.
		In Europe 0.700 grams of pure heroin is worth €70,000 after it is refined from his seven kilograms of raw opium.
		The farmer Ali says: "We’re forced to plant opium", in order for his wife and eleven children to survive the long bitter winter of Afghanistan.
	batr.org /gulag/021004.html (895 words)

	Chinese Cultural Studies: Lin Tse-Hsu (1785-1850): Letter to Queen Victoria, 1839 (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-08)
		Although opium was used in China for centuries, it was not until the opening of the tea trade to Dutch and British merchants that China was able to import large quantities of the drug.
		The Chinese were decisively defeated and had to cede to a humiliating treaty that legalized the opium trade.
		I have heard that the smoking of opium is very strictly forbidden by your country; that is because the harm caused by opium is clearly understood.
	acc6.its.brooklyn.cuny.edu /~phalsall/texts/com-lin.html (2298 words)

	Amazon.com: Opium : A History: Books: Martin Booth (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-08)
		In all likelihood, one of the first medicinal drugs known to mankind, opium and its derivatives have eased and caused suffering in almost equal measure, a fact that the evenhanded Booth takes pains to point out.
		It was already under cultivation in Mesopotamia by 3400 B.C. He describes the wars that have been fought to control the opium trade, and nowadays the multi-billion dollar heroin industry.
		This book gives an interesting history of opium and its effects both emotionally and economically on the regions of the world where it grows and is processed.
	www.amazon.com /exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/0312206674?v=glance (2506 words)

	Historie von Opium
		opium; the company has general control but the operation is
		India, recognizes that opium is harmful and at
		1804 Canton Trade Resumes Opium trading resumes at the port of Canton.
	www.drogeninfo.de /files/opi_hist.html (692 words)

	US Blaming Britain for Booming Afghan Opium Trade
		America is blaming Britain for the recent spike in the Afghan opium trade.
		It is the major historic trade route for opium from Afghanistan to the Persian Gulf.
		SIN was purportedly created to fight the cocaine trade, though SIN officers themselves engaged in the trafficking, a trade aided and abetted by some of the Haitian military and political leaders.
	www.atsnn.com /story/142358.html (5281 words)

	The Opium Trade (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-08)
		While the history books downplay just what business was done, the product of choice was opium.
		The profits from the trade built railroads, textile manufacturers and funded banks.
		The captains of the opium industry then became political leaders.
	www.templartreasure.com /ssopium.htm (134 words)

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